Using a Genre-Based Approach to Teaching Narrative Poetryby Cathy Brush What is genre? A genre is usually defined as a type or category. In literature, genres are often categorized by content or form. Genre, however, also functions as a “contract” between the writer and the reader of the text (Joliffe 279-280). In this contract, the writer uses a pre-established set of conventions, which are determined by the intended purpose and audience of the text. The reader, in turn, recognizes the use of these conventions and knows what to expect from the text. The reader's knowledge and recognition of the genre facilitates his or her understanding of the text. Using a genre approach to teaching follows students' natural tendency to classify things. Lucy McCormick Calkins writes that children in elementary school already have a sense of genre and can give examples of a given genre (359). She also points out that students who learn through genre learn to appreciate form as well as content in literature (357). They will be better able to analyze relationships between texts within the same genre as well as compare those texts to texts in a different genre.
There are many advantages of teaching literature through genre. Knowledge of genre leads to “active, often purposeful, reading and writing” (Joliffe 280). Understanding genre and its function as a contract between the writer and the reader enables students to better analyze literature as well as write their own literature. It shows students that the texts they read and the compositions they write are related. Studying the conventions of a genre allows students to recognize how authors use language for specific purposes while writing in a certain genre makes students aware of the importance of intent and audience. Often in teaching, we expect students to write in a particular genre without teaching them how to accomplish this. We expect them to know how to write a short story or a poem without first studying the conventions of these genres. When we teach through genre, we emphasize the connection between reading and writing and allow students to view the texts they read in class as models for their own writing.
Genre studies can be used to teach many different forms of literature. In this chapter I have outlined a genre-based approach to the study of narrative poetry. I have included activities that will assist students in learning the conventions of narrative poetry and applying this knowledge to write their own narrative poems. An in-depth study of poetry is an important component of any high school English curriculum. One reason for this is that adolescence is a critical time for students. At this point in their lives, students are beginning to comprehend the significance of events in their lives and may wish to write about these events. Poetry is one form of writing in which they can relate the significance of these events. Poetry serves as an outlet for students' thoughts and emotions. Nancie Atwell emphasizes adolescents' attraction to poetry, writing, “When my students use writing to capture their feelings and give shape to their experience, poetry is the mode to which they most often turn” (54-55). Narrative poetry in particular gives students a way to tell their stories in verse form. It also gives students who enjoy writing short stories a new outlet for their fiction. The study of poetry helps students develop skills that are necessary to succeed both in school and in their future careers. Analyzing poetry makes students sensitive to language and how it is used. Reading and writing poetry emphasizes the skills of critical thinking, analysis, and close reading, all of which are necessary for students to perform well on the New York State Regents exam. These abilities will also prove useful when students join the workforce, as many jobs require good writing skills.
Given these benefits of reading and writing poetry, it is surprising that so few students are exposed to this form of literature. Atwell claims that today's students' curriculum consists of “ninety-seven percent prose and just three percent poetry” (416). Small wonder then that many students find poetry intimidating. If students are taught the characteristics of poetry and given the chance to explore these characteristics in depth in others' poetry and their own, then this intimidation will soon disappear.
Studying narrative poetry in particular holds many benefits for high school students. Many students find poetry discouraging simply because they do not understand it. Too often, students are led to believe that there is one true meaning in a poem, and if they do not “get” a poem right away, they feel frustrated. For these students, narrative poetry may be an easier and more enjoyable option than lyric or dramatic poetry. Rather than wrestling with a hidden meaning in the poem, students can enjoy the story contained in the poem. Hopefully, once students learn to appreciate and enjoy narrative poetry, their confidence will grow and they will be more willing to tackle other poems.
Defining Narrative PoetryNarrative poetry is poetry that tells a story. Narrative poetry is one of the oldest forms of poetry and predates literacy. It was often used in ancient societies as a means of recording oral history, genealogy, and law because its formal meter and rhyme scheme made it easier to memorize than prose. Narrative poems are featured in many sacred scriptures, including the Bible, and were the primary method of telling stories before the advent of the short story and the novel. It is widely believed that poetry had its origins in song, and many ancient epics, including those of Homer, and many medieval ballads were originally sung or recited to musical accompaniment.
The following are characteristics of narrative poetry:
• Narrative poetry contains many of the same literary conventions found in novels and short stories including plot, characterization, setting, conflict, tone, symbolism, dialogue, etc.
• In narrative poetry, the poet is neither the narrator nor a character in the story. The narrative is told from the point of view of a main character, a witness to the events in the story, or a person who is retelling a story he or she heard from another person.
• Like other forms of poetry, narrative poetry makes use of imagery, figurative language, and sound patterns.
• Like other narratives, narrative poems usually begin with an exposition describing the main characters or the setting.
• With the exception of epic poems, narrative poetry tells a story in a more condensed manner than prose.
• The main purpose of narrative poetry is to entertain, not to express the poet's thoughts or feelings.
• Narrative poems can be fictional or nonfictional. While the majority of narrative poems tell fictional stories, narrative poetry can also be used to relate historical or biographical events.
Types of Narrative Poetry Narrative poems come in three main forms. These include:
• Ballads A ballad can be described as “a simple tale told in simple verse” (Wood 169). Ballads contain a simple meter and rhyme scheme and can easily be put to music. In fact, most ballads are meant to be sung. The language itself is also simple, consisting of mostly nonfigurative language and dialogue. Ballads are traditionally composed in a series of four-line stanzas, or quatrains, and may include a repetitive refrain. They usually concentrate on one dramatic event, focusing on action and characters with little attention to setting and detail. Many ballads contain a moral or lesson. Examples of ballads include “The Wreck of the Hesperus” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
2) Epics An epic is a long narrative poem that deals with heroic or mythical events. Gods or supernatural beings are often alluded to or included as characters in epic poems. Many ancient epics were part of an oral tradition, serving as ways of passing down stories, historical accounts, and religious beliefs. Examples of epic poems include The Odyssey by Homer and The Inferno by Dante.
3) Straightforward Narratives These include poems that tell a story but are not considered ballads or epics. Examples include “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe and “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats.
Distinctions between Narrative Poetry and Other Forms of Poetry It is important for students to be able to distinguish between narrative poetry and other forms of poetry. Just as they need to be familiar with the characteristics of narrative poetry, they also need to know what narrative poetry is not. The two other main forms of poetry are dramatic poetry and lyric poetry. While narrative poetry does share some characteristics with dramatic and lyric poetry, there are important differences between narrative poetry and these other forms.
1) Dramatic Poetry In narrative poetry, the story is told from the point of view of a narrator, and this narrator can be either an outside party or a character in the story. Dramatic poetry, on the other hand, uses the characters' own words to describe the action or reveal a situation without input from a narrator. Dramatic poetry includes plays written in verse, such as the plays of Shakespeare. Another kind of dramatic poetry is the dramatic monologue. An example of a dramatic monologue is Robert Browning's “My Last Duchess” which begins: That's my last Duchess painted on the wall, Looking as if she were alive. I call That piece a wonder, now: Frà Pandolf's hands Worked busily a day, and there she stands. Will 't please you sit and look at her?
Unlike most narrative poems, the dramatic poem begins with the character's own words. It does not contain any exposition provided by a narrator, as in a narrative poem. This can be compared with the opening lines of Edgar Allan Poe's narrative poem “Annabel Lee”:
It was many and many a year ago,
This poem begins with an exposition by the narrator, revealing the setting of the story (“many and many a year ago, / In a kingdom by the sea,”) and introduces one of the main characters in the story, Annabel Lee. Note that the narrator himself is a main character in the story, which is one of the aforementioned characteristics of narrative poetry.
2) Lyric Poetry While the main function of narrative poetry is to entertain through story telling, the purpose of lyric poetry is to express the poet's personal thoughts and feelings. It is not written from the point of view of a narrator but from the perspective of the poet or a persona created by the poet. An example of a lyric poem is “My Heart Leaps Up,” by William Wordsworth:
My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die! The Child is father of the Man; And I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety.
In this poem, the “I” is Wordsworth himself and the poem expresses his personal feelings. There is no plot or storyline in this poem as there would be in a narrative poem.
It is important that students understand the distinctions between these forms of poetry before attempting to analyze and write narrative poems. The writing of narrative verse has decreased greatly since the advent of the novel and the short story, and much of today's poetry tends to be lyric poetry. Students themselves, if asked to write poems, would likely veer towards lyric verse since this is the kind of poetry with which they are most likely familiar. By using a genre approach, we show students that they have multiple genres to choose from when writing a poem.
Planning a Genre Study on Narrative Poetry Using the writings of Randy Bomer, Lucy McCormick Calkins, and Charles Cooper as a guide, I created a plan for teaching a genre-based unit on narrative poetry. The following outline represents a combination of these sources.
1) Reading Models In order for students to become familiar with narrative poetry, they must read many examples of the genre. Charles Cooper points out that “students can learn about a written genre only if they read it” (47). It is important that these models vary in length and topic in order to expose students to the wide range of possibilities in narrative poetry. However, because of the length of epics, I will focus mainly on ballads and other narrative poems in this genre study. Since students will use the poems they read in class as models for their own narrative poems, it is more logical to focus on the shorter poems.
Chances are that students have already heard or read many examples of narrative poetry and are not even aware of it. One way to introduce students to this genre is through song. Bruce Springsteen's “The River” is a good example of a narrative song. It meets many of the criteria of narrative poetry and follows a traditional ballad meter and rhyme scheme. Begin the genre study by handing out copies of the lyrics to “The River” and playing the song while students follow along with the words. Using reader-response prompts, ask students to provide a heartfelt response to the song. Some prompts to use include:
• What do you like about the song? • What do you dislike about the song? • What images does the song evoke in your mind? • Can you identify with the characters in the song or the feelings conveyed in the song?
Once students have formed an initial response to the song, play the song again and this time ask more specific questions in order to pull the song's characteristics from the students. Some prompts to use include:
• Who is speaking in the song? • What do you notice about the structure of the song? • What seems to be the purpose of the song? • What are some of the other general characteristics of the song? List the characteristics that students notice about the song on the board. These characteristics will be used later in forming a definition of narrative poetry.
2) Listing Basic Features of Narrative Poetry Once students have had a chance to respond to a narrative song, it is time to introduce them to some of the touchstone texts. These touchstone texts will serve as models for students' own writing and will be the basis for their definition of narrative poetry. Some poems to use for this purpose include:
• “The Pied Piper of Hamelin” by Robert Browning
• “The Walrus and the Carpenter” by Lewis Carroll
• “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
• “The Death of the Hired Man” by Robert Frost
• “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats
• “The Owl and the Pussycat” by Edward Lear
• “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe
• “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe
• “Paul Revere's Ride” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
• “The Wreck of the Hesperus” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
• “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
• “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
• “Cinderella” by Anne Sexton
• “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” by Anne Sexton
• “The Charge of the Light Brigade,” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
• “Casey at the Bat” by Ernest Thayer
Nursery rhymes can also be incorporated into this unit, since many nursery rhymes are short narrative poems. In fact, it may be helpful to start with nursery rhymes and other children's poems such as Edward Lear's “The Owl and the Pussycat,” Ernest Thayer's “Casey at the Bat,” or Lewis Carroll's “The Walrus and the Carpenter.” Students will feel comfortable reading these poems since they are likely familiar with many of them.
In order to encourage a constructionist approach to learning the new genre, have students work in groups to infer the characteristics of narrative poetry and form their own definition of the genre. Also, since narrative poetry is meant to be performed, students should have a chance to hear the poems read aloud. Reading poetry aloud draws students' attention to the patterns of sound in the poem, and a good dramatic reading enhances the poem's story. Start the exercise by reading two or three narrative poems aloud and asking students to respond to the poems. The following are steps to follow for this activity:
Inferring the Characteristics of Narrative Poetry Step 1. Break the class into groups.
Step 2. Read two or three of the touchstone texts aloud as students follow along.
Step 3. Give students prompts to help them infer the characteristics of the poems such as: • Who is speaking in each of the poems? • What seems to be the purpose of each poem? • What characteristics do these poems have in common with each other? With “The River”?
Step 4. Have each group present their findings. Create a list of common features on the board.
Using the class's list of common features, have students construct a definition of narrative poetry. Because students might not be able to infer all of the characteristics of narrative poetry, it will be necessary to hand out a full list of its important features. Here is an example of a list of features to hand out to your students:
Narrative Poetry:
1) Tells a story
2) Contains action and characters
3) Is told from the point of view of a main character, a witness to the events in the story, or a person who is retelling a story he or she heard from another person. It is not told from the point of view of the poet.
4) Is meant to entertain the reader, not to express the poet's thoughts or feelings
5) Can be fictional or nonfictional
While this list does not contain all of the characteristics of narrative poetry, it does include most of its important features. The aim of this activity is to teach students the main aspects of the genre without overwhelming them. Along with a general definition, include in this lesson an overview of the three types of narrative poetry.
3) Students Share Examples of Narrative Poetry They Find An important part of any genre study is exploring the relevance of the genre to students' lives. As Randy Bomer emphasizes, students need to realize that literature is not just something they have to learn in English class; it is present in their own world (124). One way to make a genre relevant to students is by creating an assignment in which students bring in and share their own examples of the genre. This assignment proves to students that the genre can be found in their world, and it helps them recognize examples of the genre. This task also encourages students to be active participants in the learning process. An outline of a possible search and share assignment appears below. Assignment: Find your own example of narrative poetry to share with the class. Remember: a narrative poem has to tell a story. Refer to the list of characteristics we made in class and make sure your example meets most of these basic characteristics. Places to look for examples of narrative poetry: • Poetry anthologies • Magazines (American Poetry Review , Writer's Digest , Poetry Magazine , Quarterly Review of Literature Poetry Series , Rattle , etc.) • Websites ( www.poetry.com , www.poets.org , www.clickablepoems.com , etc.) • Songs • Nursery rhymes and children's poems
Be prepared to discuss why your example fits the definition of a narrative poem.
To many students, it may seem as though narrative poetry is not present in their daily lives. It is true that few modern poets write narrative poems, and many times the only place to find a written narrative poem is in an anthology of poetry. When assigning this activity, refer back to “The River” and to the nursery rhymes and children's poems you read in class. Reminding students that these are valid forms of narrative poetry should help make their search easier. 4) Developing Topics for Narrative Poems The next step for students once they have a basic understanding of the characteristics of narrative poetry is to develop topics for their own narrative poems. Since students are limited to what genre they will write in, it is important that they are free to choose their own topics. As Calkins writes, “Children need to learn that our material doesn't control us; we control it” (362). In this way, the genre study gives students a focus in their writing but also preserves student ownership of the piece.
The use of notebooks or journals helps students develop their topics. These notebooks can contain “writing territories,” or subjects that students would like to explore in their writing (Atwell 120), and also serve as places for students to brainstorm ideas. One method that Georgia Heard uses when teaching poetry is to ask students to start with a picture or feeling in their minds and then to try to write a few sentences about those images (72). Another option for some students might be to rework a previous writing assignment to fit the new genre. In narrative poetry, students can take short stories that they have written and rewrite them in narrative verse. They can also take subjects from other poems they have written and spin stories from those topics. Students' nonfiction writing can be turned into poetry as well. A nonfiction piece such as a biographical profile, for instance, can be rewritten as a narrative poem of the person's life.
Refer back to the touchstone texts as sources of inspiration for students. Students can use their personal responses to these poems to generate ideas for their own narratives. They can identify specific devices that were effective in the models and use these devices in their own poems. Students might choose to write a sequel to a narrative poem they have read or rewrite the poem from another character's point of view. Encourage students to build topics around their personal interests. A student who is interested in history, for example, might conduct research on an historical event and write a narrative poem based on that event. In this case, you will want to provide the student with examples of narrative poems based on historical events such as “Paul Revere's Ride,” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow or “The Charge of the Light Brigade,” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. A student who is interested in fantasy and fairy tales can rewrite a traditional tale along the lines of Anne Sexton's narrative poems “Cinderella” and “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” or write an original narrative using “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti as a model.
One way to get students started is to have them write “zero drafts,” short, quick drafts to see what they come up with (Cooper 48). An even more effective method to get students thinking is to model your own draft of a narrative poem. The best way to do this is to follow a practice which Atwell calls “taking off the top of my head” (331). Lead the class in writing a rough draft of a narrative poem or take a story from your own writer's notebook and work it into a poem in front of your students. Let them see you brainstorming ideas, crossing things out, and adding detail. Explain to your students what you are doing and why, and listen to their input. Demonstrating your own thinking and writing process will assist students in generating topics for their narrative poems.
5) Narrative Poetry Assignment The purpose of studying a genre is to have the students eventually write in that genre. Once students have had a chance to brainstorm topics, give them an assignment to create their own narrative poems. Include a rubric with the assignment so that students know exactly what is expected of them, thus avoiding the “contract of vagueness” that Margot Iris Soven speaks of (135). The criteria contained in the rubric should be derived from the list of characteristics of narrative poetry that the class developed together as well as any mini-lessons presented in the genre study.
Soven writes that “writing assignments that succeed include clear explanations of the teacher's expectations and provide cues for how the assignment should be accomplished” (136). Be sure to give clear instructions and objectives in the writing assignment and allow the students some freedom in their writing. In the case of narrative poetry, it is better to allow the students to write on a topic of their choice and choose from the types of narrative poems rather than limiting them to writing, for instance, a ballad. A sample narrative poetry assignment and accompanying rubric appear below.
Narrative Poetry Assignment Using your knowledge of narrative poetry and the list of characteristics developed in class, write a narrative poem. The topic is your choice, but the poem should adhere to the features of narrative poetry that we discussed in class. The poem should be at least twenty lines long since you will need to develop a story. Remember to look over the poems we read in class since they are good models of narrative poetry. Your narrative poem should: • Tell a story since this is what makes a poem a narrative • Be told from the point of view of someone other than yourself (i.e., a character in the story, a witness to the events, etc.) • Contain dialogue - not all narrative poems contain dialogue, but because this is a feature on which we will be focusing, I will require you to incorporate it in your poems • Contain sensory details • Draw on the list of characteristics we developed in class • Be written to entertain the reader
First Draft is due ______ Second Draft is due ______ Peer Review is due _______ Final Draft is due ______
Rubric for Narrative Poetry Assignment
6 – Excellent Content• Tells a fully developed story with action and characters • Clearly establishes and maintains a point of view • Meets the criteria of a narrative poem as discussed in class Form• Makes effective use of stanzas • Poem is at least twenty lines long Language• Makes use of dialogue to enhance the story • Contains vivid sensory details Conventions• Virtually free of mechanical errors
5 – Good Content• Tells a developed story with action and characters • Establishes and maintains a point of view • Meets the basic criteria of a narrative poem as discussed in classForm• Makes logical use of stanzas • Poem is at least twenty lines long Language• Makes use of dialogue to enhance the story• Contains sensory details Conventions• Exhibits few mechanical errors
4 – Satisfactory Content• Tells a story but lacks development • Establishes and maintains a point of view • Meets most of the basic criteria of a narrative poem as discussed in class Form• Makes logical use of stanzas • Poem is twenty lines long Language• Makes use of dialogue • Contains a few sensory details Conventions• Exhibits occasional mechanical errors that do not interfere with comprehension
3 – Promising Work in Need of Revision Content• Tells a story but lacks development • Establishes a point of view but fails to maintain this point of view throughout the poem • Meets some of the basic criteria of a narrative poem as discussed in class Form• There is no logical pattern to stanza breaks • Poem is twenty lines long Language• Makes little use of dialogue • Contains very few sensory details Conventions• Exhibits occasional mechanical errors that interfere with comprehension
2 – Needs Major Revision Content• Poem does not tell a story • Fails to establish a point of view • Meets few of the basic criteria of a narrative poem as discussed in class Form• There is no logical pattern to stanza breaks • Poem is less than twenty lines long Language• Does not make use of dialogue • Contains no sensory details Conventions• Exhibits frequent mechanical errors, making comprehension difficult
1 – Unsatisfactory • Is not written in the form of a poem, fails to meet the minimum requirements of the assignment
6) Examining the Writer's Craft: Mini-Lessons on Skills and Techniques Before students write their own narrative poetry, they must study some of its features in depth. Some of these features will be new to students, while others may be a review. I have included here a sequence of mini-lessons designed to aid students in their understanding of narrative poetry and assist them in their own writing within this genre.
a) Point of View Point of view is one of the conventions that immediately sets narrative poetry apart from other forms of poetry. Students should understand how point of view functions in a narrative poem before they begin their first drafts. One of the most important characteristics of narrative poetry is that the poet is not a character in the story; instead, the narrative is told from the point of view of a character in the poem or from a separate narrator. Students may have studied point of view in relation to short stories and novels, but perhaps not in relation to poetry. It is important that students write their narrative poems from a point of view other than their own.
One way to approach this topic is to read two or three touchstone texts aloud and ask students to analyze how point of view is used in these poems. Choose poems that are written from different points of view so that students can analyze how these different points of view affect the telling of the story. Some poems to consider for this lesson include “Cinderella” by Anne Sexton, “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson, and “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe. First model a point of view analysis using one of the touchstone texts. Next, have students work in groups to analyze the use of point of view in one or two additional texts. Ask them to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each point of view and how they might use point of view in their own narrative poems. Also include in the lesson an overview of the different points of view. A sample lesson for point of view is shown below.
Point of View in Narrative Poetry
Step 1. Read one of the touchstone texts aloud as students follow along. Step 2. Analyze the point of view in the poem with students. Consider the following:• Who is the speaker in the poem? • What clues are there in the poem that show you who the speaker is? • How does this point of view affect the telling of the story?
Step 3. Break students into groups and read one or two additional poems aloud as students follow along.
Step 4. Students silently reread the poem(s) and answer the following prompts: • Who is the speaker in each poem? • What clues are there in each poem that show you who the speaker is? Document lines or passages. • How does the point of view affect the telling of the story? • Based on these examples, what are the advantages and disadvantages of using these different points of view?
Step 5. Groups present their findings. Record these findings on the board.
Step 6. Present a brief overview of the main types of point of view (first-person, second-person, third-person) to fill in any gaps in the students' answers.
Step 7. Students discuss how they might use point of view in their own poems and begin their first drafts in class.
Note: Depending on which grade level you are working with, students may or may not be familiar with the other fictional conventions employed in narrative poetry including setting, characterization, theme, etc. You may want to review some of these conventions with students before they begin writing their first drafts.
b) Stanzas A mini-lesson concerning the effective use of stanzas can be presented while students are revising their first drafts. The purpose of this lesson is to teach students that a poet does not arbitrarily decide where to begin a new stanza. Rather, stanza breaks are used intentionally to lend meaning to the poem.
The length of stanzas depends on what the poet wants to say and also helps determine how it will be said. In narrative poetry, stanzas tend to be the same length, although there are exceptions. The end of a stanza represents a pause or break in the narrative. It often indicates the end of a particular action or piece of the plot. Begin by reading two to three touchstone texts aloud. Choose texts with various stanza lengths such as “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” by Anne Sexton, “The Charge of the Light Brigade” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe. With students, analyze how each poet makes use of stanza breaks and how the arrangement of stanzas affects the telling of the story. A series of sample steps for this activity is featured below.
Step 1. Read one of the touchstone texts aloud as students follow along. Step 2. Consider the following questions: • How many lines are in each stanza? • Are the stanzas all the same length or do they vary? • Why do you think the poet chose to break up the stanzas this way? • What effect do the stanza breaks have on the action?Step 3. Break students into groups and read one or two additional poems aloud as students follow along.
Step 4. Students silently reread poem(s) and answer the prompts above.
Step 5. Groups present their findings. Students construct a definition of stanzas based on this activity.
Step 6. Using the prompts above as a guide, students revise their poems, considering how to make effective use of stanzas in their narratives.
c) Dialogue A mini-lesson on dialogue is useful when students are writing their second drafts since dialogue can be added to a poem fairly easily. As in short stories and novels, dialogue is used in narrative poetry to reveal the thoughts and feelings of characters or to advance the plot. Be sure to indicate to students that although dialogue is not present in all narrative poems, it is a useful device in developing action and characters. Using a sequence of steps similar to those in the previous two mini-lessons, analyze the use of dialogue in two to three touchstone texts such as “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti, “The Death of the Hired Man” by Robert Frost, “The Pied Piper of Hamelin” by Robert Browning, or “The Walrus and the Carpenter” by Lewis Carroll. A sample lesson appears below.
Dialogue
Step 1. Read one of the touchstone texts aloud as students follow along.
Step 2. Consider the following questions: • How much dialogue is in the poem? Are there just a few lines, or is the poem made up primarily of dialogue? • Does the dialogue seem authentic? Is this the way that people normally speak? • How does the dialogue reveal more about the characters? • How does the dialogue advance the plot? • How is the dialogue punctuated?
Step 3. Break students into groups and read one or two additional poems aloud as students follow along.
Step 4. Students silently reread the poem(s) and answer the prompts above.
Step 5. Groups present their findings. Record these findings on the board and fill in any gaps in the students' findings.
Step 6. Using the touchstone texts as models, students revise their drafts to incorporate dialogue into their poems.
d) Adding Sensory Details A lesson in adding sensory details can be incorporated anytime during the revision stage, although it is most helpful after students have written their second drafts and the plots of their stories are well-established. Sensory details enhance a poem by making the words come alive for the reader. In this lesson, focus on the five senses – sight, touch, smell, taste, sound – which Ralph Fletcher and JoAnn Portalupi refer to as one's “nets to catch the world” (53). Read two to three touchstone texts aloud, asking students to pay attention to the use of the five senses in the poems. Choose poems that contain vivid sensory details such as “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti, “The Eve of St. Agnes” by John Keats, or “The Wreck of the Hesperus” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. A sample lesson on adding sensory details appears below.
Step 1. Read one of the touchstone texts aloud as students follow along. Step 2. Ask students to underline each place in the poem in which the poet describes something using one of the five senses.
Step 3. After reading the poem, ask students to share which phrases they have underlined. Underline these passages on an overhead transparency of the poem. Give students prompts such as: • Which of the five senses is featured in each example? • What kinds of images do these sensory details evoke in your mind? • How do these sensory details enhance the poem?
Step 4. Break students into groups and read one or two additional poems aloud as students follow along.
Step 5. Students silently reread poem(s), underlining passages in the poem(s) that contain sensory details and answering the prompts above.
Step 6. Groups present their findings. Underline the passages the students find on an overhead transparency of the poem and point out any sensory details that they missed.
Step 7. Students revise their poems, looking for places where they can add sensory details.
Additional mini-lessons topics for narrative poetry include figurative language (simile, metaphor, personification, etc.), fictional conventions not already covered (plot, characterization, setting, etc.), sound patterns (alliteration, consonance, etc.), developing topics, and editing. Mini-lesson topics can be built around the specific needs of your students.
7) Peer Review and Revising Revision is one of the most important components of the writing process. Nancy Sommers defines revision as “a sequence of changes in a composition – changes which are initiated by cues and occur continually throughout the writing of a work” (307). Sommers writes that many students view revision as a clean-up process. When students revise, they tend to focus on mechanical errors and vocabulary rather than the structure and content of their work. It is important, then, to find ways to encourage students to view revision as an integral part of the writing process.
One way to promote stronger revision skills in students is through the use of peer review. Peer review gives students a chance to respond to others' writing as well as receive feedback on their own work. Peer review also guides students through the process of revision, ensuring that their revisions do not focus solely on mechanics. The questions used for the peer review should reflect the content presented in the mini-lessons as well as the genre-specific criteria established by the class. Have students exchange drafts with a partner, read their partners' drafts carefully, and answer questions such as:
1) What is your initial reaction to the poem?
2) Does the poem tell a developed story? In other words, does the story have a beginning, middle and end? Is the sequence of the story clear or are there places where the reader might get confused?
3) Is the poem written from the point of view of someone other than the poet?
4) Does the poet make effective use of stanzas?
5) Does the poet incorporate dialogue? Are there are places where dialogue could be added to enhance the story?
6) Does the poet incorporate sensory details? Are there any places where sensory details could be added to enhance the story?
After students receive their peer reviews they will have a better sense of where their poems' strengths and weaknesses lie and will find them easier to revise.
8) Publishing Opportunities Do not forget to provide students with opportunities to publish their narrative poems. Publishing makes it clear to students that literature is written for an audience (besides their English teacher) and gives them a chance to share their writing with others. An easy way to publish students' work is to create a class anthology. The anthology can be in the form of a printed booklet, or it might be fun to have students create a class website on which they can post their poems. Another publishing possibility is poetry contests. Many poetry magazines and young adult magazines solicit poetry entries from young people, and some offer scholarships or other prizes as an incentive. Here is just a sampling of places to publish students' poetry:
Magazines: Cicada ( www.cricketmag.com ) Poetry Magazine ( www.poetrymagazine.org ) Potluck Children's Literary Magazine (www.potluckmagazine.org) Teen Graffiti ( www.teengraffiti.com ) Teen Ink ( www.teenink.com ) Teen Voices ( www.teenvoices.com ) Tiny Giant Magazine ( www.tgmag.ca ) Wave ( www.wavemag.com ) Word Dance Magazine (www.worddance.com) Writer's Digest ( www.writersdigest.com ) Young Voices ( www.youngvoicesmagazine.com )
Websites: www.chixlit.com www.clickablepoems.com www.merlynspen.org www.poetry.com www.poets.org www.studentbylines.com
Students might also find room to publish their poems in a school newspaper or school literary magazine. If your school does not have a literary magazine, this would be a wonderful opportunity to start one. The more publishing opportunities students have, the better. Publishing not only encourages students to write outside of English class, but also gives them a sense of accomplishment in their writing.
9) Reflection Another important aspect of the genre study is reflection. A reflection activity gives students a chance to look back on what they have learned and apply it to other contexts. Begin by briefly reviewing the features of narrative poetry and then allow students to consider how this genre has affected them as writers. Using Cooper as a basis, some possible questions to guide students through the reflection include: • What were some of the problems you experienced in writing a narrative poem, and how did you solve these problems? • How did the models we read in class influence your own narrative poem? • What do you like most about your poem? Is there anything you would still like to change about it? • Did you find this genre easier or harder to write in than other genres we have studied this year? Explain your response. • How do you think this unit will help you in your writing? Use these questions as the basis for a reflective essay or class discussion. Or, set aside a class period or two for students to read their poems aloud and allow their fellow students to respond to the poems. No matter how it is accomplished, the reflection should allow students to think about what they have learned through their study of narrative poetry and infer relationships between it and other genres.
10) Lesson Preparing Students for New York State Regents Exam Include in the genre study a writing exercise to prepare students for the New York State Regents Examination in English. The exam, which students take in their junior year, helps determine whether students receive a high school diploma. It is worth spending class time, then, to familiarize students with the types of essays they will have to write as well as the format of the test.
One of the essays that students are required to complete on the exam asks them to provide an interpretation of a “critical lens,” which establishes the criteria for analysis. In order for students to perform well on the exam, they must not only comprehend the meaning of the critical lens, but also be capable of citing two literary works to support their answers. To help students prepare for the exam, have them write a critical lens essay. Use the same vocabulary included on the exam so that students become familiar with these terms. Reinforce what students have learned in the genre study by requiring one of the texts to be a narrative poem. A sample lesson for preparing students for the critical lens essay appears below.
Preparing for the Regents “Critical Lens” Essay
Step 1. Give students the following handout and read it aloud:
The Regents exam includes an essay task in which you are given a “critical lens” and must interpret that critical lens using two literary works. This critical lens is a short statement that serves as the focus of your essay. Here is an example of a critical lens essay as it would appear on the Regents:
Your Task: Write a critical essay in which you discuss two works of literature you have read from the particular perspective of the statement that is provided for you in the Critical Lens . In your essay, provide a valid interpretation of the statement, agree or disagree with the statement as you have interpreted it, and support your opinion using specific references to appropriate literary elements from the two works.
Critical Lens: “All literature shows us the power of emotion. It is emotion, not reason, that motivates characters in literature.” – paraphrased from an interview with Duff Brenna
Guidelines: Be sure to: • Provide a valid interpretation of the critical lens that clearly establishes the criteria for analysis • Indicate whether you agree or disagree with the statement as you have interpreted it • Choose two works you have read that you believe best support your opinion • Use the criteria suggested by the critical lens to analyze the works you have chosen • Avoid plot summary. Instead, use specific references to appropriate literary elements (for example, theme, characterization, setting, point of view, etc) to develop your analysis • Organize your ideas in a unified and coherent manner • Specify the titles and authors of the literature you choose • Follow the conventions of standard written English
You must choose one of the narrative poems we read in class as one of your literary works.
Step 2. Explain any words or phrases in the question that students do not understand. Ask students to paraphrase the statement in the critical lens.
Step 3. Break students into groups of two or three and ask them to develop a thesis based on their interpretation of the critical lens.
Step 4. Once each student has formed a thesis, students can start planning and drafting their essays in class.
Incorporating Narrative Poetry into a Genre-Based Curriculum In a genre-based curriculum, it is important to teach genres not as separate categories, but as related social texts. Narrative poetry, then, can play a vital role in a high school English curriculum. It combines the features of poetry with the features of fiction and is an ideal choice to precede or follow a unit on short stories. It can also be taught in connection with other forms of poetry since it shares many of the language devices often used in lyric and dramatic poetry. It is important to note that many narrative poems deal with nonfiction topics as well. The skills and research that students apply in composing a nonfiction narrative poem are vital to the study of nonfiction genres such as autobiographical or argumentative writing. Narrative poetry, because it displays many connections to other forms of literature, can be incorporated almost anywhere within a genre-based curriculum. Works Cited
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