Argument

A Genre Approach to the

Teaching of Argumentative Writing

by Paul Washburn

Rationale

“Genre” is certainly not a foreign concept to most English teachers. The idea is tacit in the way in which literature has been traditionally taught. First we'll cover a unit on the short story, then we'll move on to the science fiction novel (probably after Halloween), and we'll start fresh after the holidays with a unit on poetry. Most non-teachers are familiar with the concept as well, as evidenced by the ease at which most people navigate the “genre” partitioned aisles of their local video or book store. On the most basic, superficial level then, “genre” is simply a way to categorize a text (be it a novel, film, TV show, whatever). However, several studies have taken a closer look at what is meant by genre and its entailments (including Bakhtin 1984, Halliday 1978, Miller 1984, and Bazerman 1988 to name just a few).

Without delving too deep into the murky waters of the theory behind these studies, let's take a look at how some practitioners of these new ideas have come to define genre :

“… [L]et me define “genres” as types of writing produced every day in our culture, types of writing that make possible certain kinds of learning and social interaction.” (Cooper 1999:25)
“Genres are conventions, and that means they are social – socially defined and socially learned.” (Bomer 1995:112)
“… [A] genre is a socially standard strategy, embodied in a typical form of discourse, that has evolved for responding to a recurring type of rhetorical situation.” (Coe and Freedman 1998:137)

Stripped of the distracting jargon, these researchers agree that genre isn't merely a convenient form of classification. Rather, there is something inherently social surrounding the use of any given genre. Joliffe (1996) summarizes this idea nicely by describing genre, not as a system of categorization, but as a (social) contract between a writer and a reader – each of whom brings certain expectations to the text. Joliffe states that, for a writer (an academic writer in this particular instance), “the genre not only allows the scholar to report her research, but its conventions and constraints also give structure to the actual investigations she is reporting” (Joliffe 1996:283). Compare this idea to painting – the medium (oil vs. watercolor, say) not only becomes the artist's vision, but, by its very nature, it will also constrain and influence how that vision is presented. A reader, on the other hand, approaches a genre with expectations of what he or she will find and, ultimately, these expectations will influence his or her engagement with the text. For example, a typical horror fan will walk into Friday the 13 th without expecting the same development of character that a fan of historical drama does from Schindler's List . With such expectations in place, a reader is more fully prepared to engage the text on its own terms. By choosing a specific genre then, a writer has chosen to present his or her work in a package that will be socially recognizable and accessible by an audience who, in turn, will approach the work with some notion of what to expect.

All of this is fine in the abstract, but how does it apply to teaching literature? Again, the idea is rather simple in its execution. Basically, the trend is to teach genre by writing genre. In other words, a student will best learn about short stories by writing short stories (and so on). The idea is to thoroughly explore a genre and its conventions by actually attempting to write within it. Calkins (1994:363) justifies the approach beautifully: “We find that when an entire class inquires into a genre, it is life-giving. It opens doors and leaves a lot of room for variety and choice, while also allowing the classroom community to inquire deeply into something together. We want our students to know what it is not only to fashion the material in our notebooks into a poem or a newspaper article, but also to read and live as poets or as journalists.” Notice that Calkins makes no real distinction between fictional and non-fictional writing. All forms of writing are valid genres.

Which brings me to argument and the argumentative essay. As scholars and educators, we are intimately familiar with argument as a genre. We, as writers, know the conventions of our disciplines and how to couch our arguments within that framework. But what about students? Traditionally, argumentative essays have always been required, but they are never really addressed as a genre themselves. As a result, students are often forced to write in a framework (the “five-paragraph” essay we all grew up with) without having actually studied the conventions and what makes a good argument. More importantly, students are rarely, if ever, transitioned from this format to its application to studying literature (which, as English teachers, should be one of our many primary goals). Curiously, in the course of researching this topic, I found an interesting aversion to discussing this particular genre. While none of the researchers attempted to deny its place as an important genre, most of them (with Cooper (1999) being one major exception) seemed to marginalize it somehow. And this is, perhaps, understandable given the dominance the argumentative essay has in academia (especially at the high school level and up). As a result, most of the rhetoric concentrated on the benefits of writing poetry to learn poetry, writing narratives to learn narratives, and so on. This is an undeniable improvement on the traditional method of imposing the same analytical genre to explore all other literary genres. Bomer (1995: 110) expresses the same belief in another way (here he addresses the perceived necessity of teaching argument as a means of redressing power imbalances): “… [S]uch a doctrine of incremental preparation has always prevailed in American high schools, where teachers strive valiantly to teach students to write in ways that have nothing to do with their present lives, because those ways of writing might be demanded in college.”

However, if the new theory of genre is true – as we are assuming – and we recognize the very real-life dominance of argument, then it stands to reason that students would benefit from the presentation of argumentative essays in the same way as the short story. They should study argument as a form in and of itself – with relevant examples – and attempt to write their own with given models. Given its prevalence in academia (regardless of whether there are power imbalances), this genre should be given a certain pride of place. In fact, I would argue that, in light of the new standards being implemented by the No Child Left Behind Act (2002) and demanded more locally by the New York State Regents Exam (Parts I and II), argumentative essays should be introduced early and reinforced often. The rest of this presentation will discuss the argumentative essay as a genre and outline an approach to teaching it for these very purposes (most appropriately to eleventh and twelfth graders, although I believe it would be even better to begin in tenth grade).

Defining Argument

Argument is a genre most of us are familiar with. As Wood (1998:5) points out:

“Argument is everywhere. It is not only found in obvious places such as courts of law, legislative assemblies, or organized debates. Indeed, it is a part of all human enterprise, whether at home, at school, at work, or on the national or international scene. Home argument, for example, might center on spending money, dividing the household work, raising the children, and planning for the future. School argument might include such issues as increasing student fees, finding parking, understanding grades, or selecting classes and professors. Work argument might focus on making hiring decisions, delegating responsibility, or establishing long-term goals. National argument might deal with providing health care, abolishing crime, or electing leaders. International argument might deal with protecting human rights, abolishing hunger, or negotiating international trade agreements. Thus argument appears in virtually any context in which human beings interact and hold divergent views about topics that are at issue.”

But how are we to define it? As before, there are multiple views on the subject:

The goal of argument “is to create or increase the adherence of minds to the theses presented for their [the audience's] assent.” (Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca 1969:45)
“Argument is a perspective, a point of view that people adopt to identify, interpret, analyze, communicate, and try to reach settlements or conclusions about subjects that are at issue.” (Wood 1998:6)
Argument is “a course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating the truth or falsehood of something.” ( American Heritage Dictionary )

As argument can contain elements from each of these perspectives, it is perhaps an exercise in futility to give a simple unified definition. A better course of action is to lay out the different forms of argument (see below), choose the ones that best fit this genre study, and go on to differentiate what argument is and what it is not .

Wood (1998) lays out eight different classifications for argument. They are as follows:

Debate, with participants on both sides trying to win. This is the type of argument typical of formal debates. The participants may or may not have any real stake in the issue and there is a “winner” determined by a judge or mediator. The debaters are not trying to convince each other.
Courtroom argument. This needs no further elaboration. Similar to formal debate with a clear winner and the lack of mutual assent.
Dialectic, with people taking opposing views and finally resolving the conflict. As used by Plato in his works. A questioning strategy designed to examine problems and reach some form of consensus.
Single-perspective argument, with one person arguing to convince a mass audience. The most familiar form of argument to the average student. Campaign speeches, editorials, and advertising all use this form. There is usually a clear issue and the position taken on that issue. Opposing views are refuted. No clear winner.
One-on-one, everyday argument, with one person trying to convince another. Examples include convincing a customer to invest in a particular stock or buying a car. Requires more personal interaction and may not have any clear “winner.”
Academic inquiry, with one or more people examining a complicated issue. “The purpose of academic argument is to discover new views, new knowledge, and new truths about a complex issue. … There are no clear-cut pro and con positions, no judges, and no emphasis on winning. … It is conducted through a cooperative search for knowledge, however, rather than on finding a winning position at the expense of others.” (Wood 1998:7)
Negotiation, with two or more people working to reach consensus. Involves both competition and cooperation. Every participant must state a position and support it, but be open to alternative views and reasoning in order to reach mutual satisfaction.
Internal argument. Individual decisions such as New Year's resolutions or who to vote for. How one goes about convincing oneself.

These are all valid argument categories encompassed by the various definitions offered earlier. In fact, we could even consider these categories to be sub-genres of the larger “argument” genre. For the purposes of this study, we will only consider two of them - single-perspective and academic inquiry. These are the ones most often expected of students as writing assignments. As I will later demonstrate, it may be useful to begin with the single-perspective argument (to lay the groundwork) and transition – via assignment sequencing - to a more literature-based academic inquiry (with an eye towards preparing students for the Regents exam).

What then are the common features of the argumentative essay? Cooper (1999) gives several “genre-specific” criteria for these types of essays (my additions and clarifications are in italics):

Single-perspective:

Asserts a clear position on the issue. If choosing the middle ground, the writer should also make this clear.
Issue is defined narrowly enough to argue convincingly and specifically. Space considerations often preclude discussion of too broad an issue or topic.
Gives specific reasons for holding the position.
Supports each reason with personal experience, examples, statistics, or by quoting authorities. Goes on to restate or clarify each example when necessary.
Provides readers with new, surprising ways to think about the issue. This is where a student's personal interpretations come into play – this criterion is especially relevant to applying argument to literature (see first bullet point below).
Shows an understanding of opposing views. And refers/replies to them respectfully.
Anticipates reader's objections and questions. And refers/replies to them respectfully.
Sequences the argument in a logical step-by-step way.

Literary Interpretation:

Asserts some meaning the writer finds in the text.
Topic is defined narrowly enough to argue convincingly and specifically. Space considerations often preclude discussion of too broad a topic.
Chooses workable thesis terms and carries them throughout the essay.
Develops logically with one idea leading to the next
Makes use of relevant evidence from the text. Or other sources, if applicable.
Does not ignore or slight contradictory evidence. Understands that the existence of contradictory evidence does not necessarily invalidate or lessen an argument.

As a kind of informal rubric, these criteria are fairly solid. But a few things should be emphasized when presenting the argument genre to students (especially younger students) to differentiate it from common misperceptions:

Argument is not a fight or a quarrel. Hostility has no place in “pure” argument. Ideally, argument is “a creative and productive activity that engages us at high levels of inquiry and critical thinking, often in conversations with persons we like and respect” (Ramage and Bean 1998:4).
Argument is not pro-con debate. This is where the concept of “winning” comes into play. In “pure” argument – as a form of inquiry – there can be no real winners or losers. There is room for everyone's interpretation and all interpretations are potentially valid.

Arguments are explicit. While an argument can be made implicitly, such arguments are usually couched within some other literary genre (poetry, short stories, etc.). As such, these arguments are subject to further interpretation and, ultimately, become themselves the input for writing academic inquiry essays.

Pursuing a Genre Study on the Argumentative Essay

Introducing the Genre

The obvious first step is to acquaint students with the conventions and characteristics of the genre. This becomes all the more important when we consider the possible “power-imbalances” alluded to earlier. Given the idea that genre functions as a social contract, it stands to reason that those who have hitherto had no experience of a specific genre are potentially unable to fully enter into the contract. This reasoning forms the basis for much of the Australian and North American approaches to teaching genre theory (although they differ in some methods – see Bomer (1995) and Coe and Freedman (1998) for a more complete discussion). As Coe and Freedman (1998:139) point out, “students who do not arrive at school with the requisite cultural knowledge and abilities are disadvantaged.”

The best way to begin is to read several examples of good argumentative essays. As Cooper (1999:47) points out: “Students can learn about a written genre only if they read it – and reread it and talk about it.” Sample essays can be found in Appendix A (pp. 13). The teacher can begin by reading the first sample aloud and then ask for/assign volunteers to read the others. As the students read through each sample, they should respond in writing (reader-response style) in a journal or writer's notebook. The teacher can then encourage discussion by having the students share their responses with the class. Once the sample essays have been adequately discussed, the students will be provided with Wood's (1998) general definition of argument (from page 3) and they will be asked to discuss whether the samples fit the definition. The students will then proceed to the next task.

Upon gaining a basic introduction to argument from these “touchstone” texts, a constructionist approach should be used to guide the students into identifying and characterizing the common features of the argument genre. Students will collaborate in small groups in order to discover, on their own, the features of argument. Ideally, the students will identify most of the elements listed earlier (on page 5). The teacher can then synthesize the results into a coherent consensus – modifying results or filling in gaps as necessary. The constructionist approach is particularly well-suited to the demands of the argument genre. With its emphasis on collaborative, social learning, constructionism taps into the social aspect of Joliffe's genre contract. Also, as Williams (1998:48) points out, constructionism “focuses composition classrooms on facilitating students' entry into the academic discourse community by teaching them to read and write in the language of the academy.” Given the favored place of argument in academic discourse, the constructionist model seems almost deliberately designed to teach argument.

Once the complete list of features (the “genre-specific criteria”) has been synthesized and clarified, the teacher should take the opportunity to highlight those elements which are not features of argument. Ultimately, the students will be provided with a handout of the criteria and the contrasts for reference. An example of this handout can be found in Appendix A (pp. 14).

The final step in the introductory phase is to have the students locate examples of argumentative writing and share them with the rest of the class. Such an activity will reveal and reinforce the students' understanding of the genre. Also as Bomer (1995) suggests, such practice allows the students to see the breadth of the genre as well as demonstrating Wood's (1998:5) thesis that “Argument is everywhere.” It is important for high school students to directly relate what they learn to their daily lives, especially concerning a genre that is so commonly associated with the “ivory tower.”

Developing Topics for Single-Perspective Essays

Once the students have demonstrated their recognition of the genre, they can begin to write their own. Since argument requires a clear statement on a specific topic, the obvious first step is to decide on one. There are several ways in which to help students identify a topic. Perhaps the simplest way is to have a whole-class brainstorming session in which a large variety of subjects can be discussed and debated as to whether they would constitute a “worthy” topic. The teacher can act as a facilitator - offering prompts to keep the conversation from wandering off on tangents. Alternatively, the teacher could make topic identification an on-going process from the start of the unit. Students could be asked (even before introducing the genre) to be on the look-out for interesting or controversial subjects and to keep a running list of them as the unit proceeds.

Another approach is to use journal entries – otherwise known as “writer's notebooks.” These are ungraded, informal classroom writing assignments designed to promote reflection, inquiry, and inspiration. Such an approach – widely advocated by researchers, including Burke (2003), Soven (1999), Atwell (1998), and Hjortshoj & Gottschalk (Forthcoming) - allows students to “write to learn” and to see that not all writing is done solely for grades. The non-critical nature of journal writing also allows students to feel more comfortable with the writing process.

A third possibility combines elements of both strategies. Hjortshoj & Gottschalk (Forthcoming) suggest students get into small groups and test out different topic ideas on their peers. Students could spend some time individually researching – and writing down - some potential topics and then report/debate them in their groups. Such a strategy has the added benefit of continuing the constructionist model applied in the introductory phase.

The Argumentative Essay Assignment

Now that a topic has been identified, the full essay assignment, along with a rubric, can be presented to the class. The rubric, together with the previously outlined genre-specific criteria, provides the student with clear, structured guidelines to follow. As a result, the student will feel more comfortable knowing what is expected and how to approach writing within the genre.

Both Soven (1999) and Burke (2003) advocate the use of clear assignments (based on class content) and equally clear rubrics. Aside from giving the students an extra set of guidelines – which can help the student evaluate his or her own work prior to handing it in – the rubric allows the teacher more flexibility in grading. The descriptions in a rubric can “account for a range of writing that can receive the same grade” (Soven 1999:121). In addition, having such clearly expressed goals can aid a teacher in identifying common problems more quickly, thereby allowing him or her to more readily address them.

Appendix B (pp. 16) shows a sample argumentative essay assignment and its accompanying rubric. Notice that the rubric in this example is patterned after the New York State Regents rubric for Part II, B (which is usually a literature-based academic inquiry essay). Furthermore, note that this assignment is more appropriate to a twelfth grade honors or AP class.

Mini-lessons on Skills and Techniques

Although students may well have had to write argumentative essays prior to this class, they are likely to not have studied the form in depth. Mini-lessons (as developed and promoted by Atwell (1998)) offer a welcome chance to delve into various aspects of the argument that they are unfamiliar with or with which they have had difficulty. The mini-lesson's brevity and intensity of information leave some of the tedium behind (for students), while allowing the teacher a chance to specifically target (potential) problem areas.

One possible mini-lesson – which would ideally be taught either before or soon after choosing a topic – would be how to narrow the focus of a complex issue. A common feature of many early forays into this genre is writing about too broad a topic. Students often pick an issue (such as abortion) and construct a thesis that would need a very long research paper (or a book) to adequately argue. Our assigned essays, on the other hand, would likely be only 2 or 3 pages (at most). A thesis should be restricted to perhaps a single aspect of an issue – one that can be fully explored/argued in a short essay. As Hacker (2003:15) advises, “… a thesis must be a generalization, but it must not be too general.”

One approach to teaching this mini-lesson would be to make a list of the topics students have chosen on the board. From there, the teacher can “take off the top of her head” (Atwell 1998) and model the process of narrowing a topic (perhaps by using a blank transparency and an overhead projector). This wouldn't necessarily be a one-sided event. The teacher can easily make this process collaborative by prompting the students for ideas. This activity could be supplemented by referring to the “touchstone” texts and examining how the examples accomplish the task. For instance, the teacher could pick the general topic of illegal immigration. He or she could then ask the students to brainstorm various important aspects of illegal immigration – the economic impact on a community, tax rates, whether or not to allow them driver's licenses (an important issue facing Congress today), health care, or child care. The teacher can then refer to the student essay by A. Knutson (one of the touchstone texts – see Appendix A) to see which aspect he decided on. An example of this mini-lesson is given in Appendix C (pp. 19).

Another mini-lesson could focus on the importance of counter-arguments (or opposing views) - the need to address them in an essay and how they should be addressed. Hacker (1998:42) describes the importance of counter-arguments as follows:

“Readers who already agree with you need no convincing, although a well-argued case for their point of view is always welcome. But indifferent and skeptical readers may resist your arguments because they have minds of their own. To give up a position that seems reasonable, a reader has to see that there is an even more reasonable one. In addition to presenting your own case, therefore, you should review the opposing arguments and attempt to counter them.”

Moreover, she discusses the necessity for civil disagreement, stating it terms of credibility . A writer who addresses the opposition fairly, conceding points when necessary, is more likely to be seen as a reasonable person than one who consistently ignores or misrepresents such views.

This mini-lesson could be introduced through stealth. At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher could offer up a hot-button issue for discussion - preferably one which has not yet been explored and which is likely to inflame passionate outbursts (though some caution should be exercised – such a strategy could easily get out of hand). Allow the students as much free rein as possible. Let them argue until the “discussion” has started to degenerate into the sort of semi-hostile exchanges often seen on news programs (such as CNN's Crossfire ). Or, alternatively, show actual segments from one of these news programs in class. In either case, ask the students to respond in writing to the following (possible) questions: Were any of the arguments convincing? Why or why not? How did X respond to Y's argument? Was such a response effective? Could such tactics ever change someone's mind? Why or why not? Students could then share their responses with the class. The teacher can then refer to the “touchstone” texts in order to illustrate how a counter-argument should be presented (Knutson's second paragraph is particularly well presented – see Appendix A) or he can pick one or two examples from the program/discussion and invite the class as a whole to figure out ways in which to restate the concerns of the opposition. An example of this mini-lesson is given in Appendix C (pp. 20).

Other potential mini-lesson topics: proofreading, revising and editing (sentence, paragraph - see example mini-lesson Appendix C, pp. 21), supporting claims with evidence, proper citation (MLA, APA), distinguishing between reasonable and fallacious arguments, and distinguishing between legitimate and unfair emotional appeals.

Peer Review

Peer review offers many benefits to the student writer. First, it gets the student used to the idea of having his or her work evaluated and commented on (while simultaneously learning to evaluate and comment on another's work). The ability to receive constructive criticism (and act on it) is a skill crucial to any writer. Second, the student begins to recognize that writing is a process – not a one-time, last-minute homework assignment that will be handed in, graded, and forgotten.

Soven (1999:48) recommends checklists for peer review, citing the unfortunate tendency of students to give vague or reluctant critiques: “I believe that students' lack of confidence in their ability to judge another student's work is probably more often the reason for their vague comments rather than embarrassment.”

Perhaps the most important aspect of peer review is that it is the precursor to revision . As Sommers (1980) notes, most students view revision as a alternate term for proofreading, whereas experienced writers understand revision as the key to effective writing – involving a cycle of draft and revision attending to different levels with each cycle. A peer review task can be found in Appendix D (pp. 23).

Publishing

“A sense of audience – the knowledge that someone will read what they have written – is crucial to young writers” (Atwell 1998:489). The final step in the writing process is to put the work out there for public scrutiny (even if it is a limited public like the classroom). Making students perform this step fosters an appreciation for their work as an actual entity representative of themselves – something worth acknowledgment, worthy of an audience, and requiring pride of craftsmanship.

As argument is one of the most prolific of written genres, opportunities for publication are fairly easy to come by. Newspapers routinely publish student editorials, essay contests (on various local, state, and national levels) frequently ask for argument, and in-house school publications often offer forums for students. Web-based writings (collectively known as Blogs ) are becoming increasingly common and influential. This particular outlet has the added benefits of being available to anyone with access to the internet (even if only temporary) and of requiring no competition.

Two other possibilities include using class time to have oral readings of the students' work (which has the added benefit of making the student aware of the differences inherent between oral and written language) and, more ambitiously, to have the students contribute their final unit essays to a mock academic journal and distribute them to each class member.

Reflection/Building Ties to Other Genres

As mentioned earlier, argument underscores so much of academia that its application to other genres is practically taken for granted. If the students become familiar with the single-perspective argument, then it is not much of a transition to enter into literature-based academic inquiry. And from that knowledge, students can rapidly come to see how argument can be applied to other academic disciplines (though they will need to become familiar with new conventions and criteria). If this genre is introduced early enough, the basic skills necessary to any genre will be greatly enhanced - the critical thinking skills necessary to interpret any data or text, the understanding of writing as a process, and the importance of revision.

Works Cited

“Argument.” The American Heritage Dictionary . 1983

Atwell, Nancie. 1998. In The Middle: New Understandings About Writing, Reading, and Learning. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Bakhtin, Mikhail. 1984. “The Problem of Speech Genres.” In Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Pgs. 60-102.

Bazerman, Charles. 1988. Shaping Written Knowledge. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Bomer, Randy. 1995. Time for Meaning: Crafting Literate Lives in Middle and High School. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Burke, Jim. 2003. The English Teacher's Companion: A Complete guide to Classroom, Curriculum, and the Profession. Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Calkins, Lucy M. 1994. The Art of Teaching Writing. Portsmouth: Irwin Publishing.

Coe, Richard M. and Aviva Freedman. 1998. “Genre Theory: Australian and North American Approaches.” In Mary Lynch Kennedy (ed), Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and Scholarship in Contemporary Composition Studies. Pp. 136-147. Connecticut: Greenwood Press.

Cooper, Charles. 1999. “What We Know about Genres, and How It Can Help Us Assign and Evaluate Writing.” In Charles cooper and Lee Odell (eds), Evaluating Writing: The Role of Teacher's Knowledge about Text, Learning, and Culture. Pp. 23-52. Urbana: City Desktop Productions.

Hacker, Diana. 2003. A Writer's Reference (5 th Edition). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.

Hale, Constance. 1999. Sin and Syntax: How to Craft Wickedly Effective Prose. New York: Broadway Books.

Halliday, Michael. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic. London: Edward Arnold.

Harvey, Gordon. 1998. Writing with Sources: A Guide for Students. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company.

Hjortshoj, Keith and Katherine Gottschalk. 2002. “The Elements of Teaching Writing.” Unpublished Manuscript. Cornell University.

Johnson, Edward D. 1991. The Handbook of Good English. New York: The Washington Square Press.

Joliffe, David A. 1996. “Genre.” In Theresa Enos (ed), Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age. Pp. 279-284. New York: Garland Publishing.

Kurland, Daniel J. 1995. I Know What It Says … What Does It Mean: Critical Skills for Critical Reading. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Miller, Carolyn. 1984. “Genre as Social Action.” Quarterly Journal of Speech 70. Pgs. 151-167.

Monroe, Jonathan (ed). 2002. Writing and Revising the Disciplines. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Packer, Nancy H. and John Timpane. 1997. Writing Worth Reading: The Critical Process. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.

Perelman, Chaim and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca. 1969. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. IN: Notre Dame Press.

Ramage, John and John Bean. 1998. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings (4 th Edition). Mass: Allyn and Bacon.

Strunk, William and E.B. White. 2000. The Elements of Style (4 th Edition). Massachusetts: Longman Publishers.

Sommers, Nancy. 1980. “Revision Strategies of Student Writers and Experienced Adult Writers.” College Composition and Communication. Vol. 31: pp. 378-388.

Soven, Margot I. 1999. Teaching Writing in Middle and Secondary Schools: Theory, Research, and Practice. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Williams, A. Lee. 1998. “Constructivist Theory.” In Mary Lynch Kennedy (ed), Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and Scholarship in Contemporary Composition Studies. Pp. 45-50. Connecticut: Greenwood Press.

Wood, Nancy V. 1998. Writing Argumentative Essays. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Appendix A

Touchstone Texts:

Hacker, Diana. 2003. A Writer's Reference (5 th Edition). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's.
Ramage, John and John Bean. 1998. Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with Readings (4 th Edition). Mass: Allyn and Bacon.
Wood, Nancy V. 1998. Writing Argumentative Essays. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

These texts were chosen primarily for their inclusion of student essays. While professional writers are certainly capable of writing “standard format” arguments, they will often take some creative liberty with the general structure – as is their right. Genre conventions should never be considered written in stone. However, a professional writer brings certain skills, talents, and experience to their work which may seem intimidating to someone just starting out in the genre. As a result, I believe it's beneficial to include some samples of student work with which a new-comer can feel more comfortable. The above texts have a balanced mixture of professional and student work. Wood (1998) has over 50 essays to choose from, while Ramage and Bean (1998) offer more than 70. The two samples I've provided here (attached) are by student writers. What follows is a short list of some essay titles from these two texts.

Wood (1998):

The Highs of Low Technology Johanne Mednick

The Importance of Jury Instruction Tanya Pierce

Letter from Birmingham Jail Martin Luther King, Jr.

Doctor-Assisted Suicide: Is it ever an Option? Marion Duchac

The Whiny Generation David Martin

Ramage and Bean (1998):

In Defense of Decency Mike Romano

The Net Doesn't Need Thought Police Marc Rothenberg

Watch that Leer, Stifle that Joke Gretchen Morgensen

Gay Rights, Gay Marriages John Leo

Why I Hate ‘Family Values' (Let Me Count the Ways) Katha Politt

An Introduction to

The Argumentative Essay

What is an argumentative essay?

“Argument is a perspective, a point of view that people adopt to identify, interpret, analyze, communicate, and try to reach settlements or conclusions about subjects that are at issue.” (Wood 1998:6)

The goal of argument “is to create or increase the adherence of minds to the theses presented for their [the audience's] assent.” (Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca 1969:45)

Argument is “a course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating the truth or falsehood of something.” ( American Heritage Dictionary )

What kinds of arguments are there?

Debate, with participants on both sides trying to win. This is the type of argument typical of formal debates. The participants may or may not have any real stake in the issue and there is a “winner” determined by a judge or mediator. The debaters are not trying to convince each other.

Courtroom argument. This needs no further elaboration. Similar to formal debate with a clear winner and the lack of mutual assent.

Dialectic, with people taking opposing views and finally resolving the conflict. As used by Plato in his works. A questioning strategy designed to examine problems and reach some form of consensus.

Single-perspective argument, with one person arguing to convince a mass audience. The most familiar form of argument to the average student. Campaign speeches, editorials, and advertising all use this form. There is usually a clear issue and the position taken on that issue. Opposing views are refuted. No clear winner.

One-on-one, everyday argument, with one person trying to convince another. Examples include convincing a customer to invest in a particular stock or buying a car. Requires more personal interaction and may not have any clear “winner.”

Academic inquiry, with one or more people examining a complicated issue. “The purpose of academic argument is to discover new views, new knowledge, and new truths about a complex issue. … There are no clear-cut pro and con positions, no judges, and no emphasis on winning. … It is conducted through a cooperative search for knowledge, however, rather than on finding a winning position at the expense of others.” (Wood 1998:7)

Negotiation, with two or more people working to reach consensus. Involves both competition and cooperation. Every participant must state a position and support it, but be open to alternative views and reasoning in order to reach mutual satisfaction.

Internal argument. Individual decisions such as New Year's resolutions or who to vote for. How one goes about convincing oneself.

What argument is not :

Argument is not a fight or a quarrel. Hostility has no place in “pure” argument. Ideally, argument is “a creative and productive activity that engages us at high levels of inquiry and critical thinking, often in conversations with persons we like and respect” (Ramage and Bean 1998:4).

Argument is not pro-con debate. This is where the concept of “winning” comes into play. In “pure” argument – as a form of inquiry – there can be no real winners or losers. There is room for everyone's interpretation and all interpretations are potentially valid.

Arguments are explicit. While an argument can be made implicitly, such arguments are usually couched within some other literary genre (poetry, short stories, etc.). As such, these arguments are subject to further interpretation and, ultimately, become themselves the input for writing academic inquiry essays.

What are some of the characteristics of the argumentative essay?

Step 1: In groups of three, read one of the samples essays given. Consider the following questions and discuss your responses:

• What makes this essay an argument?

• How is the essay structured?

• How does the author argue his point?

• What kind of argument is this?

• What is the author arguing about?

Step 2: Select a note-taker to record your discussions and a presenter to share your results with the class.

Step 3: Each group will share its findings with the class. Common characteristics will be collected in a master list.

Step 4: For homework, find at least one example of an argumentative essay from any source. Some possible locations: newspaper editorials, textbooks (history, politics, philosophy), essay anthologies, Blogs, magazine columns ( Newsweek , Time ), and professional journals ( Journal of the American Medical Association , Linguistic Inquiry ). Be sure to bring in a copy! We will read some of them next class period.

Appendix B

The Argument Essay

Writing Assignment & Rubric

In the past few sessions, we have taken a look at the two extremes in attitudes towards language. Some people (like John Simon) demand rigorous, immutable standards. Others (like Steven Pinker) believe language exists and develops independently (and in spite) of any standards. For your essay, please consider the following:

“Most educated people already have opinions about language. … They know that grammatical sophistication used to be nurtured in the schools, but sagging educational standards and the debasements of popular culture have led to a frightening decline in the ability of the average person to to construct a grammatical sentence. …” (Steven Pinker 1994: 17-18)

In a 2-3 page paper, argue either for or against this statement.

Some questions to help you get started:

What is your interpretation of the “educated person's opinion” (that is, what do you , personally, understand it to mean)?
Do you agree with this position? Be sure to take a firm position for either side of the question. You may pick the side you favor, but it might be more fun (and challenging) to argue for the side you personally oppose.
If possible, try to come up with an issue that the authors you've read didn't mention (there are many!) and use it to support your argument. Feel free to use personal observations and stories, illustrative examples, your own logic, or whatever combination you'd like. Choose something from your own experience that could be used as an example. You are also free to use any outside sources (including your readings) as long as they are cited correctly (use either MLA or APA).

The most effective essays will include the following:

Beginning your essay with an obvious and specific thesis. Do not let your audience wonder what is you will be arguing for.
A narrow focus (defined by your thesis) which will keep your arguments tightly controlled. Try not to make your arguments too broad to argue convincingly.
Advance logical and convincing arguments supported by evidence.
Try to include the counter-arguments of the opposing views and your responses to them.
Be sure to pitch your argument for the appropriate audience. Assume you are writing this for your peers or (perhaps) to a wider population as a magazine editorial. Do not write your paper as a insider's note to me. You may use first person as long as the tone doesn't get too informal (no inappropriate slang or swearing).

Due dates:

Assignment given: ___________________

Rough Draft to me: ___________________

Bring 3 copies of First Draft: ___________________

(Peer Review in class)

Final draft (with revisions) due: ___________________

Appendix C

Narrowing Your Topic

When choosing a topic for an argumentative essay, it is very easy to get lost within a large complex issue. Do you want to discuss abortion? Gay marriage? Immigration? Or possibly the War in Iraq? All of these issues are fertile ground for making a compelling argument. But how are you going to do justice to such a broad–based, complex issue in only 2 pages? How could you possibly cover all the arguable ground inherent in such problems during the relatively short time-span of the Regents exam?

The answer is to address a smaller part – a single aspect – of your chosen issue. If abortion interests you, then argue its effect on the teen pregnancy rate. Or, if the war gets your feelings of patriotism in an uproar, then argue the necessity of the US taking preemptive action to combat terrorism.

Take a look at the examples below and answer the following questions:

Immigration laws have been a subject of debate throughout American history, especially in states such as California and Texas, where immigrant populations are high. Recently, some citizens have been questioning whether we should continue to educate the children of illegal immigrants. While this issue is steeped in emotional controversy, we must not allow divisive “us against them” rhetoric to cloud our thinking. Yes, educating undocumented immigrants costs us, but not educating them would cost us much more.

When a cell phone goes off in a classroom or at a concert, we are irritated, but at least our lives are not in endangered. When we are on the road, however, irresponsible cell phone users are more than irritating: They are putting our lives at risk. Many of us have witnessed drivers so distracted by dialing and chatting that they resemble drunk drivers, weaving between lanes, for example, or nearly running down pedestrians in crosswalks. A number of bills to regulate use of cell phones on the road have been introduced in state legislatures, and the time has come to push for their passage. Regulation is needed because laws on negligent and reckless driving are not sufficient to punish offenders.

Questions:

What is the larger issue under discussion?

What is the single aspect of this issue that the author focuses on?

Further activity:

In groups of three, list your potential argument topics and discuss possible aspects of these debates which you would feel comfortable writing about.

Countering the Opposition

Diana Hacker (1998:42) describes the importance of counter-arguments as follows:

With this in mind, let's view a few minutes from an episode of CNN's Crossfire.

(Show video)

Consider the following questions:

Were any of the arguments convincing? Why or why not?
How did X respond to Y's argument?
Was such a response effective?
Could such tactics ever change someone's mind? Why or why not?

Now look at the following passage and answer the same questions:

“Those who propose barring the children of illegal immigrants from our schools have understandable worries. They worry that their state taxes will rise as undocumented children crowd their school systems. They worry about the crowding itself, given the loss of quality education that comes with large class sizes. They worry that school resources will be deflected from their children because of the linguistic and social problems that many of the newcomers face. And finally, they worry that even more illegal immigrants will cross our borders because of the lure of free education.”

In addition to the above questions answer the following:

Which method makes for a more effective and convincing argument?

Subordination and Clear Sentence Logic:

Or, the War against “and”

Sample 1:

There is a mistake often made in papers, and it is something that could easily be avoided. Too many writers string their phrases and clauses together by using “and,” and they do this so frequently that their style becomes wordy, repetitious, and boring. The clarity of their writing suffers also, and the logical relationship between the parts of their sentences never becomes clear. The word “and” is like a piece of glue, and it only sticks groups of words together, and it is the least definite of connectives, and it does not tell the reader how one idea relates to another.

Sample 2:

Students often make the mistake of overusing “and,” which renders their style wordy, repetitious, and boring. The clarity of their writing suffers, since the logical relationship between the parts of their sentences never becomes clear. The word “and” is like a piece of glue: it simply sticks groups of words together. It is the least definite of connectives, for it does not tell the reader how one idea relates to another.

Note: There are, of course, plenty of situations where “and” is entirely appropriate, but they occur with far less frequency than you may realize!

Below is a list of logical relationships which “and” obscures, along with words to use instead:

Obscured Relationship Words to use instead of “and”

Time: when, after, before, until, as long as

Place: where

Cause: since, because

Concession: although, however

Condition: unless, if, provided that

Exception: except

Purpose: in order that, to

Description: relative pronouns (who, which, that)

Using words other than “and” can sharply clarify an otherwise unremarkable sentence:

Example: I went to the store and bought an umbrella.

Revisions: I went to the store to buy an umbrella. [purpose]

I went to the store, where I bought an umbrella. [place]

Notice that the two revised sentences have different meanings, each more specific than the original. When you stop overusing “and,” you are forced to decide exactly what it is you want to say.

If you are not going to express the logical connection between two independent clauses, it is usually better to start a new sentence.

Example: After narrowing down the possibilities academically, you can be more subjective, and ask yourself, does this college offer anything else that I want.

Revision: After narrowing down the possibilities academically, you can be more subjective. Ask yourself: does this college offer anything else that I want?

Exercises: Revise these sentences to get rid of “and.”

George is basically dishonest, and he is my friend.

______________________________________________________

The dog began barking, and then I woke up.

______________________________________________________

The weather has been foul, and I am in Ithaca.

______________________________________________________

The weather has been foul, and I am in Honolulu.

______________________________________________________

I worked very hard, and I got a bad grade anyway.

______________________________________________________

[Adapted from a handout given by Professor Harry Shaw, Dept. of English, Cornell University]

Appendix D

Peer Review

Writer: _____________ Reader: ______________

Directions:

First, read through the entire paper without comment. Then re-read it and answer the questions below. If you find it helpful or necessary, you may also write marginal comments on the paper itself. Remember, critical commentary is supposed to be constructive . You are trying to point out areas for improvement. This is not a forum for telling someone their work “blows.” Be considerate. Also, if something strikes you as particularly impressive or well-written, by all means point this out as well! Criticism can be positive.

Does the author clearly state the broader issue under discussion? If not, is the broader issue easily understood from the context?

Is the author's position on the issue easy to determine? Can you easily identify whether the author takes a pro, con, or middle-ground stance?

Is the thesis too broad? Has the author narrowed the topic enough to argue thoroughly and convincingly given the amount of space?

Does the author supply the reader with specific reasons for his or her position? Can you identify why the author takes his or her pro/con/middle position?

Does the author support his or her reasoning with evidence? Are there examples, statistics, authoritative quotes, or personal experiences?

Does the author include his or her personal interpretation of the issue? Or does the author only repeat what others have said without offering a new perspective?

Does the author acknowledge the opposing view? Is the author's summary accurate?

Is the author respectful in his or her treatment of the opposition?

Does the argument flow logically from point-to-point? Does each reason from question 4 lead naturally into the next? If not, are the arguments given reasonably connected?

Or even desiring – which, I believe, only reinforces how deeply ingrained our genre expectations are.

Although, as one might assume, some genres might not be appropriate to teach in a public school setting – for one reason or another.

Such imbalances are indeed an important issue – and they do have an effect - but for the purposes of this presentation, I have chosen not to discuss them.

This is to say nothing about the wonderful ways in which argument promotes and develops critical thinking – the primary skill that underlies all learning. It is not my intention to turn this modest presentation into a treatise on the benefits of argument, so I will say no more here.

Back to Genres

SUNY Cortland