Teaching For the Future:

Science Fiction Genre Study in the Classroom

by Jackie Pittsley

The main supposition a teacher of science fiction must defeat is the general denial of its importance in the classroom. How important is science fiction to children in the new millennium? And how does the SF teacher incorporate short science fiction into a curriculum already swelled to the breaking point with preparation for the NYS exams? The answers to both questions are simple, and the same. Many of the problems facing teachers who are preparing students for the NYS exams can be solved using short science fiction, in many cases with better success than other types of short stories, as well as prepare them to face the rapidly spiraling world of technology around them. Sheila Finch writes in her article, “Dispatches From the Trenches: Science Fiction in the Classroom,” that “science fiction is a rich literary genre, not an impoverished one” (32).

Furthermore, students will be able to approach this genre because of previous experiences with short fiction. David Joliffe suggests that “new genres come quite simply from other genres” (281). So, upon discussing science fiction writing in relation to other forms of familiar short fiction, students will possess both a solid base and a working definition with which to study short SF.

Genre studies, like science fiction itself “came about because certain social situations in which they are useful recur” (Bomer 118). Science fiction emerged as a new genre as a tool of both understanding and warning to people facing the ramifications of technology on society. Science fiction examines the end result of becoming too dependent upon technology, and becoming too arrogant in our possession of said technology. Thus, it is both vital and unifying across the scholastic curriculum to teach both long and short science fiction. Students will gain knowledge not only of fascinating literature, but also gain knowledge of the world they live in, and how to manage within it. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to discuss the necessity of teaching science fiction in the classroom, and detail one approach to doing so, using a full-classroom genre study. This particular approach is presented using techniques such as modeling and process writing, and is grounded in several touchstone texts as well as the tenets set forth by experienced education professionals such as Randy Bomer, Margot Soven, and Nancy Atwell, as well as by several members of science fiction academe.

Short Science Fiction in the Classroom

Long-time teacher of science fiction Barbara Bengels states that “science fiction is, by its very nature, a dangerous and subversive sport. Few people take it very seriously – yet how can we not?” (428). The study of science fiction or SF is not, as many would think, an unheard of practice. In fact, well-known SF writer Jack Williamson states “the serious academic study of science fiction dates from about 1960” (375). Since then, SF has become slowly more mainstreamed. Tracy Minor, operator of ScifiNoir.com stated in 1988 that “the age range [for science fiction readers] is from 19 to 61” (Nwazota 30). However, SF is also gaining ground in the high school classroom, but based usually upon the study of the science fiction novel. Popularized and canonized titles include Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale , Mary Shelley's Frankenstein , and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World . However, short science fiction should not be overlooked as a way to gradually introduce to students, most of whom may not be fans, to an entirely new and mind-blowing type of novel. An earlier genre study should begin with texts such as Daniel Keye's “Flowers for Algernon,” Robert Silverberg's “The Assassin,” Thedore Thomas' “The Good Work,” Isaac Asimov's “The Immortal Bard,” and Judith Merill's “That Only a Mother.” Students will soon learn that science fiction is just as approachable as any form of literature already in their genre schemata.

SF is not much different from mainstream short fiction, it “makes use of two conventional narrative forms: the travel narrative and the historical narrative” (Slusser and Chatelain 161). The main difference between the mainstream short story and the science fiction short story is its setting. In other words, the SF piece will generally be told within the confines of post-apocalyptic Earth, or use as plot devices, as yet impossible scientific inventions such as time travel. Readers will quickly become familiar with SF due to the widespread crossover of SF literature into film. Therefore, as Bomer suggests, “we [students who have seen these films] have a sense of ‘how this type of thing is supposed to go'” (116). Therefore, introducing science fiction to a classroom will not be quite the leap of faith a teacher may expect.

Science Fiction and the Students

Students, most teachers will find, generally accept science fiction into their genre schemata. Why? Because as Diana Mitchell states in her article “Teaching Ideas” science fiction “speaks to issues in students' own lives” (87). Students in most classrooms, public and rural especially, are confronted with issues regarding technology daily. For example, the growing demand for computer literacy definitely complicates and sometimes segregates students, based upon the skills they possess and the availability of technology outside of school. Students are definitely already going to be aware of their own dependence upon technology, necessary to becoming a functioning member of the world. Educational specialist Charles R. Cooper states that “because genres are situational, they are functional” (26). Students understand the situation they face in confronting the technology of the millennium. Therefore, the best way to assist students in becoming technologically literate, the basis science fiction, is to immerse them in its study. Students in any classroom always ask “When are we ever going to use this in the real world?” The main concern of educators, which they can share with the students, is preparing students for what they will face outside of their comforting cocoon of high school. Getting students on the SF bandwagon through genre study is perhaps as easily justified as teaching students basic math skills. Physical Science teachers E.E. Nunan and David Homer state that the “SF text depicts science and technology as subject to an evolutionary process: and knowledge about them […] has a special educational relevance” (317).

Science Fiction For Girls

Of extreme importance in the educational field today are the loss of women in scientific fields and the lack of teenage girls who have interests in science and math. Feminist scholar and proponent of teaching science fiction Jane Donawerth states that, “45% of the United States work force is made up of women, yet only 13% of the science and engineering fields” (40). Although her figures are from the mid-eighties and the number of women in scientific fields is growing, there is still a measurable gap between female and male scientific professionals. One of the main focuses of opponents of teaching science fiction is that it lacks specific interest for young girls, as the majority of canonized writers of short science fiction are white men. However, this statement is a slight misnomer, as Shelley was an original (if not the first) writer of SF and more and more women are becoming standardized in anthologies of SF. Therefore, as Donawerth argues, “Teaching science fiction by women offers a counterbalance to these causes of girls lack of interest in science: worlds in which men and women participate equally in scientific discovery” (40). Immersion in short science fiction works, including those by women such as Judith Merill, Lois Lowry, and Ursula LeGuinn will open up the realm of possibility to girls, as well as to boys. They can become inspired not only to write creative, short science fiction, but also to enter the worlds of the characters they read about and create.

The Counter-argument Refuted

Randy Bomer argues in his book, Time For Meaning: Crafting Literate Lives in Middle and High School , that genre studies should have “wide boundaries, […] the shared genre is […] short fiction, not a subgenre like haiku, science fiction, or family stories”(122), to keep the students from “feeling oppressed” (122). However, this broad-based approach can be overwhelming to a high school student, in turn oppressing their learning processes and limiting their expertise. Children would become comfortable with one type of short fiction (the type they love for aesthetic reasons), possibly even refusing to continue to engage with new material. And although ownership of creative writing is very important in the high school classroom, perhaps more important to a teacher's scholastic curriculum are current social relevance and preparation for the future the students will face. Lucy McCormick Calkins argues that “student writers must be nudged to extend their repertoire” (357). Teaching short science fiction in the classroom accomplishes all of these goals, as well as providing students with experience in the study of short fiction.

Opponents to science fiction also argue that it is escapist. However, this is simply not true. Science fiction short stories provide no more of an escape for readers than do any other short stories. Furthermore, science fiction short stories all have some, if not an immediate, reference to today's society, the direction that society is moving in, and the consequences of such movement. A SF short story not only force students to confront these issues, but also helps prepare them for the world they will eventually live in.

Opponents to science fiction also argue that its appeal is limited and produced dominantly by white males. As I have shown already, this argument is quickly becoming false as well. Science fiction opens the realm of possibility for girls to careers in the scientific fields, as the stories often depict strong minded, creative female characters. Furthermore, there are dozens of female writers of science fiction including: Margaret Atwood, Ursula LeGuinn, Lois Lowry, Judith Merrill, Pat Cadigan, and Mary Shelley is often credited with writing the very first science fiction novel. Discovering “minority” writers of science fiction is only a matter of research. Finally, the cannon, treated as gospel word by many teachers is already invariably male dominated. For example, the standard playwright, taught by every teacher in America , every single year of high school, is William Shakespeare. He is never abandoned in favor of a female playwright. Most traditional teachers also fail to balance their teaching of poetry with female authors, preferring instead the (fantastic) old stand-by: Robert Frost. All teachers, were they to take a serious look within the genre, would discover that their canonized works are not the only available science fiction short stories, plays, and poems they could teach. It just takes a little more research.

Defining Science Fiction

Perhaps the most cumbersome job a teacher of science fiction faces when teaching the genre is defining it specifically. Even writers and critics of science fiction have extreme difficulty coming up with one all-encompassing definition of what science fiction truly is. A teacher's most supportive defense of the genre comes from SF writer and critic Frederic Jameson. He writes “Pure textual exemplifications of a single genre do not exist because texts always come into being at the intersection of several genres that emerge from the tensions” (322). The best defense of science fiction is a great offense. Science fiction icon James Gunn writes that “the kinds of subjects that can be taught through science fiction involve all the social and physical sciences, history, ideas, futurology, religion, morality, ecology, reading skills, and many others” (377).

How do teachers distinguish science fiction from other fictional subgenres of the short story, and get it into the Standard English curriculum? Science fiction is distinguishable from other forms of the short story in several ways.

1. Central to the makeup of a science fiction short story is its concern with the future, based upon extrapolation of current available scientific technology. Sheila Finch argues that SF “requires us not to accept a particular opinion about the future, but to consider possibilities as a way of making ready” (29). As stated before, science fiction deals most often with post-apocalyptic Earth (whether there is still an Earth or not), and usually incorporates elements of as yet impossible scientific invention: most notably time travel, or hyper-realized gadgets such as holograms, teleportation, and/or extremely advanced robotics. Great examples of such works are Tenn 's “Child's Play,” Dick's “Autofac,” and Thomas' “The Good Work.”

2. Science fiction, as read in the Oxford Companion to English Literature “challenges readers to decide whether what they are reading is within the bounds of the possible” (Kincaid 410). Not only does SF encompass scientific advancement, but also deals with the implications of this advancement in all areas of human knowledge. Science fiction teacher Domna Pastourmatzi argues that “short stories are an ideal way to make them [students] think about the impact of high tech on personal, national, and global levels […] to develop a personal position on current scientific advances and technological products and services” (533). In other words, science fiction deals both with what will happen to our world in the future because of technology, and with what it will mean for humans as a whole. Good examples of this tenet include: Asimov's “The Immortal Bard,” Keye's “Flowers for Algernon,” and Merrill's “That Only a Mother.”

3. Unique to science fiction as well is a subject as yet fantasized about by scientists and popularized by the movie industry: the existence of little green men. A nearly original defining element of science fiction (taking into account that not every SF work has aliens) is human interaction with extra-terrestrial life. Of course, these forms of life can vary from aliens from other planets as in A.E. van Vogt's “Pen Pal,” or they can deal with other forms of aliens as we see in Anvil's “Cinderella, Inc.” For example, re-animated flesh, as we see in dozens of zombie movies, as well as in Shelley's work. They can deal also with long-dead historical figures, as in Silverberg's “The Assassin.”

The creation of student SF work will be entirely original. As SF critic Barbara Bengels writes, “SF by its very nature suggests that the future will be even more strange than we can imagine; it makes us flexible, tolerant of what will come, it makes us eager to meet that future” (431). Every possible story within the realm of the student's imagination will be “in the realm of the possible.” Finch states that “SF is a literature of ideas” (30), and in science fiction, the students will thrive because as linguist Dagmar Barnouw states, “writers of SF need to be plausible rather than factual” (331).

There are several features of other types of short stories that are not vital to short science fiction. This creates windows of opportunity for students. It is worth noting, though, that within the scope of science fiction, are variations to each of the following features. Several of these features include:

1. The elements of the story (plot, setting, linear progression) are not necessarily integral and as highly developed in SF as they would be in a mainstream short story. The SF story itself is important, but can perhaps be considered as only part of a larger whole. For example, “readers do not recognize it, as they recognize other genres, because of some defining event or setting” (Gunn 377). Take for example John Updike's famous mainstream story “A&P”. Most important to the story is the character of Sammy, his life, his psyche, his dreams of escaping the banality of his current environment of store-bought goods exchanged under superfluous rules. His character is what makes the story important. Or in the case of the famous suspense/horror story “A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner. The plot is integral to the story; why Emily does not pay taxes, what became of her strange beau who disappeared mysteriously, and the excavation of her home after her death all build up to the final chilling exposure of her murderous nature. In contrast, SF stories tend to “drop the reader into the middle” of the story. Although sometimes difficult for young readers, ascertainment of the implications of what has happened to humanity supersedes all that is expressly written on the page. Science fiction in general does not concentrate as much on character, setting, plot, as it does on theme.

2. Science fiction is not escapist. Science fiction is not to be dismissed as merely a pleasurable escape from the unchangeable present to which readers and students are accustomed. Legendary SF writers and critics Charles Elkins and Darko Suvin argue, “SF breaks down the barriers of a closed and immutable world” (266). Instead of offering an escape, science fiction plunges readers into the furthest outreaches of our own world, based upon the current trends of our own created and theorized scientific study. Combined with this are historical precedents, communication advancements, international political relations, and personal introspection which when combined, leave the readers unable to return to their complacent assumptions about the progression of time.

Teachers of this genre will be able to give the guidance students need in studying the literature so that they might be able to create their own fascinating and thought-provoking pieces of science fiction.

A Genre Study on Short Science Fiction

The instructions listed below are for introducing to high school students a genre study on short stories of science fiction. For the purposes of teaching science fiction at the middle or high school level, this genre study centers on “hard” science fiction only. That is, science fiction created with the image of “what the future will be like” specifically in mind. These include stories upon scientific invention, post-apocalyptic Earth, utopias, dystopias, and some epistolary work. This genre study does not include examples of “soft” science fiction, which includes more meta-cognitive themes and introspective work such as Cyberpunk, Slipstream, and Fantasy work. This study is centered around the final goal of the production of a similar piece of writing, and are based on touchstone texts, and work published and practiced by Randy Bomer, Margot Soven, Nancy Atwell, and others, using several aspects of different learning theories, such as scaffolding and modeling.

1. Introduction of the Genre

Teachers must begin by familiarizing students with the genre and its defining characteristics. Although science fiction is “primarily and centrally narrative fiction” (Elkins and Suvin 263), its intricacies and deviations from mainstream short fiction must be discussed in detail. It is necessary to acquaint students with the particular aspects of the genre before intense study can begin. For example, most hindering to students studying the genre will be the unfamiliar (and at times fictional) language they will encounter. Authors make up names for people, places, and things which do not already exist; students must be prepared to take this unfamiliar language in stride, not getting caught up in it and possibly losing sight of the larger goals of the story. Thus, a good teacher will begin by reading an SF short story, or several, to their students, to familiarize them with the language and setting. The students can use their writer's notebooks to write down their reactions to the stories, take notes, and ask questions. The students can then use this to gain a defining knowledge of what science fiction sounds like. After gaining this defining knowledge of science fiction (which could take some time), the teacher must help students to practice this knowledge. The best approach to make certain students understand the tenets of science fiction is to introduce them to a piece and ask them to examine it. Piaget, for instance, advocates group learning, or collaborative learning. Students band together to “reach greater understanding” (46). Asking students to form groups and read an SF piece out loud together places them directly within the genre (not to mention a teacher will be certain they've read at least some of the works they are supposed to study). The weaker students will also gain benefits from the stronger students who have little trouble with the difficult language and the “in the middle” leads.

After reading aloud, ask the group to come together as a class, or write within their own group and list the defining characteristics of the SF piece. Students can use their writer's notebooks to jot down their thoughts. For example, a student's inherent fear of technology or the future is a fantastic base upon which to create a good piece of short science fiction. The opening credit slogan of the X-Files is “the truth is out there.” So too, is the truth within the students' own notebooks. Then ask the class to regroup and discuss their findings, while the teacher acts as moderator, refining the given characteristics, and adding some that may be overlooked. This may be even more solid an effort, were the students to take an entire class period and read a piece of mainstream short fiction as well, and write down its defining features. Then the class will always have a solid base on which to compare the SF piece to a distinctly non-SF piece.

A handout that details these activities can be found in Appendix A, p17-21.

After spending a day or two defining in class the features of the science fiction short story, a final introductory task teachers should assign is to ask students to bring examples they can find at home or in the world (see pages 18-19) to share with the class. Or, as Calkins details, “bring in examples that knock my socks off” (364), which can further engage and inspire the young people to write in the genre. This will also help to “authenticate” the genre, as Bomer suggests is vital to teaching it. Students are made aware that the genre does exist outside of the classroom. The unique thing as well about science fiction is that students could also bring in SF film examples as well (this may be done on a separate day). SF teacher David Burmester always incorporates into his genre study film examples to ground the students in the characteristics. It may even be that students can “focus on rich discussion, and on the differences between a particular film and a novel” (90).

2. Developing Topics For Student Work

After the students have a good working definition of science fiction, the following task is to get students thinking about writing topics. Simply diving into writing a short science fiction story would be a mistake for students, especially those with little or no experience in creative writing. Nancy Atwell's first inclination toward student generated fiction is “please don't” (393), but with encouragement, guidance, and notebooks, students can slowly develop their own personal ideas regarding science fiction and the future, creating a foundation for their own work. The writer's notebook is an indispensable tool for creative writing, giving students a base of operations from which to work. Throughout the beginning days of lecture and group work, ask students each day to write down their own experiences not only with the literature, but regarding science and science fiction as well.

A second generative and fun approach toward discovering an idea for a short science fiction story is by freewriting. Soven writes that “freewriting is more effective than brainstorming for connecting ideas early in the writing process” (34). In this approach, students write for ten to fifteen minutes without stopping, using free association as well as their knowledge of science fiction to create ideas. Examples of such freewriting prompts may include the following: 1. What do you think of when you think of science fiction? 2. What do you think the world will be like in fifty years? 3. What scares you about our technology? 4. Do you think that there are really extra-terrestrial beings out in the universe?

A third technique students can use to generate ideas about creating their own science fiction story is to follow a heuristic. Soven writes that a heuristic is “a set of guidelines, not to be followed slavishly, but to be applied to the problem in ways that help the problem solver arrive at a solution” (35). She then uses the common example of the 5 W's (who, what, where, when, why) which causes students to adhere to at least some set of functional guidelines when working in such a free genre. For example, teachers can ask students who their futuristic character is going to be, what kind of work he/she will do, where the character lives, when the character lives (in what future), and why the life of the character is going to change within the story. This can allow for revision early or before the writing process begins, so that students do not opt out of their creative works with a “and then he/she woke up and realized it was all a dream” (Atwell 405). The teacher can then review the ideas that have been written in the students' notebooks and help the students begin a draft.

Atwell writes that “teachers help by teaching: by showing students how writers write and demonstrating techniques they can use to achieve their new standards” (149). For example, students may not be familiar with the creation of a piece of fiction in general. A mini-lesson, taught before the writing process begins, conducted about the processes an author undergoes should include the following:

> modeling of the creative writing process in front of the class

> class discussion on what processes authors and writers undergo

> use of notebooks, freewriting, and heuristics to begin writing

> an emphasis on the necessary revision involved in writing

One approach to teaching this mini-lesson is detailed in Atwell's In The Middle: New Understandings About Writing, Reading , and Learning . She suggests teachers discuss in class while students take notes about what exactly the students think authors do when creating a piece of fiction. This 20 minute session can be broken down into a 5-10 minute group work session in which the students confer with each other about their own ideas, and then rejoin the group to come up with a consensus regarding the creative writing process. Teachers should definitely model their own creative writing process on an overhead “or taking off of the top of their heads” (Atwell 331) to show students how they write. Donald Murray stated that “writing is thinking, not though recorded” (Kennedy 170), and therefore, teachers must show students how to think by showing how they think about writing.

A mini-lesson discussing what writers do is detailed in Appendix D, pg. 26-31.

Teachers need to be careful and selective when helping students synthesize a draft from their notebooks, allowing the student to maintain ownership of the work. They can ask the student, particularly, to use what their vision of the future is, and place their character in it, and use their own fears of technology to give the character weight, and a plot. The students will rise to this occasion, excited to see that their “intimidating short story assignment” has already been fleshed out and begun in their notebooks. All they need to do now is give their scribblings meat.

3. Short Science Fiction Assignment

Once students have decided upon a topic for writing, the entire creative writing assignment should be presented to them. This assignment should allow room for latitude, remembering that “no story is wholly science fiction” (Kincaid 413), but also keep students bound within original goals set forth in the introductory phases of the study. Along with this assignment, students must be given a rubric detailing specifics of what they are required to do, and how the assignment will be evaluated. In possession of the rubric, students can maintain ownership of their story within the wide boundaries of science fiction, but also maintain focus, clarity, and concision.

To maintain focus, the writing assignment must be grounded in the classroom discussion, and teachers must give clear instructions, as well as specific, relevant criteria for evaluation. Soven writes that “writing assignments that succeed include clear explanations of the teacher's expectations and provide cues for how the assignment should be accomplished” (136). Although educators such as Atwell would not assign a grade at all to the piece, or assign a grade based on classroom effort and participation only, such a luxury does exist outside of the privately funded scholastic environment. Because evaluation and grading are a necessary part of the assignment, students should be aware of the grading criteria at its outset.

To maintain student ownership and teacher control of the assignment, Soven tells us that “some choice is necessary for students […] when instructors are confident that students are aware of the options for choice and have the skills to make the choice, they can be confident that giving their students choices will induce better writing” (139). In other words, the students must be given choices in their own creative writing, detailed by teachers who are good at expressing what they want to see produced of an assignment. The more clear, the better.

Appendix B pg. 22-25 details a short science fiction creative writing assignment and is accompanied by a clear rubric that explains the guidelines for a successful piece.

4. Mini-lessons on Skills and Techniques

Although creating short fiction is entirely owned by the student (that is, there is not a necessary linear process indicative of all SF works of fiction), there are some aspects of creating short fiction that must be tackled explicitly by the teacher. As students begin their writing, several mini-lessons (see pg. 6, pg. 12, and below) should be conducted to focus the students in their writing, and help them prepare for the task at hand.

One mini-lesson centers on focus of the story: titles and lead paragraph of the science fiction short story. Both can be a difficult skill to master, as short stories by definition do not follow a clear linear progression, but “drop readers in the middle” instead. One great way to analyze titles and lead-paragraphs would be to have the students analyze the leads of the touchstone texts. The students can discuss in groups how their attention is grabbed, how the lead forces them to continue reading, and how it sets the framework for the bulk of the story. In some cases, simply asking the students a series of questions regarding their work can force them to recognize the weaknesses in the piece. This mini-lesson can be done before the peer review stage, and may help students avoid any unnecessary embarrassment in front of their peers.

The teacher, in front of the class, should model both good titles and lead sentences. To begin, the teacher can choose a science fiction topic familiar by now to all of the students – say for example, the discovery of alien life forms. The teacher can compose several titles and lead sentences using the overhead projector. For example, the discovery of alien life could begin with a personal detail:

Chuck stepped off of the star cruiser and engaged his lucite laser gun. He knew

trouble was staring at him, because the hairs on his neck were standing up.

Or, an attention grabbing lead could ask a question:

Why are you here? What are you going to do to me?

Or, dialogue to open an SF story can be interesting:

“Get off of my back! I can't breathe!” Jane jumped and tossed, trying to dislodge

the thing that had just jumped on her.

Other possible leads should be modeled as well by the teacher.

When modeling titles, a teacher can use the overhead to read to the class short groups of sentences, or can use the leads she has already modeled to create catchy titles for the stories. For example:

The first lead about Chuck may be called: “A Monster is Watching”

The second questioning lead may be called: “Hostile Takeover”

The third lead may be called: “Attack of the Alien Teacher From Jupiter”

Atwell, who models her own writing in front of her class continually, states “I play the role of writer for their benefit and to try to lend credibility to the act of writing. I performed writing” (331).

In addition to observing teacher modeling, students should be given opportunities to practice developing leads and titles for short science fiction pieces. Students can, for instance, be given a worksheet with several grouped sentences, or an introduction to one of the touchstone texts, and be asked to brainstorm their own interesting, attention-grabbing titles to them. The students can be asked to rewrite those same paragraphs, and develop varying leading paragraphs or sentences. The class can then come back together and share what things they've come up with.

A final necessary mini-lesson should be taught at the editing stage of every genre study, not merely just science fiction studies. The objective of the editing mini-lesson is to help students add the final details to their work which will give it an edge, or “punch” as it is termed by English teacher Tom Barron. The final mini-lesson should be introduced in conjunction or before peer review, because during peer review sessions with class members, students can not only point out any areas that need work in the short story, but they can also offer suggestions. These tips can be as simple as writing conventions, which should be modeled beforehand by the teacher, or word choice for clarity. The best editor of a story is a second set of eyes, and peer reviewers can go into a session armed with the constructive tools necessary to have a successful one.

The mini-lessons discussed above can be found in Appendix C, pg. 26-31.

5. Peer Review

Using peer review in the classroom is an important component of any genre study for several reasons. First, peer review allows students to obtain criticism from among their own intellectual group instead of “facing the red pen” of a teacher. Furthermore, when a negative comment must be attributed to some aspect of the student work, the student is less likely to become discouraged, and more likely to take the advice of a fellow member of the trenches. For although the teacher must also be modeling the creation of short science fiction and maintain a relationship of “colearner” (Bomer 123), there is no true way to dissolve the dichotomy of power between the teacher and the student. Second, it maintains Murray 's notions of teaching writing as a process in which the work must be revisited several times during its production. Finally, it puts the work of the teacher onto the students. That is, the students are given room to become experts in the craft of science fiction. In this way, they not only own their own piece, but also own the knowledge of the construction of a work in the genre. It advocates the retention of the topic studied, and maintains the working knowledge of what constitutes science fiction.

A variation of the general approach to teaching students how to create short science fiction is necessary to emphasize the need for revision. Students in general are not receptive to constructive criticism, and may be hostile toward revision of their own work. Therefore, it is necessary to teach the students how to revise their own paper, and how to revise the work of others in a constructive, non-threatening way. Brooke Horvath states in her article “The Components of Written Response: A Practical Synthesis of Current Views,” that “most inappropriate of all are comments posing veiled attacks on the student, her opinions and interests, her worth as a writer. Students have a proprietary interest and emotional involvement in their writing because it is an intensely personal act in its revelation of character, intellect, belief, feeling. Therefore, responses manifesting scorn, hostitility, condescension, flippancy, or boredom are always out of line” (247-248).

For this particular genre study, students will be asked to perform a peer review of a classmate's work, using a detailed and formatted peer review questionnaire. Soven remarks that often “student comments are not sufficiently specific, and they do not stay on task” (48). Providing students with a tool for reviewing keeps them on task and focused. Grading the peer review for class participation can also motivate students to do well for their coworkers.

Peer review is designed to encourage students to revise their own work, as well as to help other students strive to do well. Peer review is a classic example of collaborative learning; it helps students to become more judicious writers and more practiced critics. The questions on the peer review draw from both the mini-lessons and on the defining characteristics of science fiction short stories in general.

A peer review work sheet for the short science fiction story can be found in Appendix D, pg. 25-26.

6. Publishing

Any number of proponents of the genre study and process writing will agree that providing publishing opportunities for students is vital to their learning experience. Whether the publishing opportunity is maintained strictly within the classroom, or is expanded to the world at large, it gives purpose to the students' work. Atwell argues, “A sense of audience – the knowledge that someone will read what they have written – is crucial to young writers. Kids write with purpose and passion when they know that people […] will read what they have to say” (489). Atwell outlines several ways in which students can publish their works, from forming a bound book that can be shared within the class, to creating pieces that will be shared with friends and family.

There are more possibilities for publishing student work than teachers would think. One great and technologically grounded way for students to publish is over the Internet. There exist many private and professional websites to which students may submit their work. These include the NCTE web site, and a teen writing web site called http://teenwriting.about.com . Also, many students are required to create in computer literacy classes their own web sites, which are ideal for sharing their own work with the world.

There are also professional literary magazines that publish the work of middle and high school students. Also, almost every school in New York State has its own literary magazine, or at least a school newsletter that sometimes publishes the creative work of students. Teachers should not overlook these possibilities. There exist as well both professional and school-based writing award programs; one great idea may be to institute within the school a writing contest open to all students.

7. Reflection Lesson/Assignment

A concluding exercise at the close of any study of genre is necessary. This allows the students to experience closure with their own work, as well as receive something more lasting than simply a grade on their piece of science fiction. The class activity can be procedure oriented (listing defining characteristics of science fiction, along with its shared characteristics), or reflective (student opinion pieces), or both. The best tool for the reflection lesson is within the writer's notebook. Bomer states that “whether or not every writer in the world keeps a notebook, students' work in notebooks make concrete and clear some important processes in writers' minds” (131).

In the case of a writer's notebook, the students could be asked to give their general response to having studied science fiction, as well as giving specific areas that they still might be having trouble with. This provides them with an initiative to keep researching the genre independently or in groups, and gives them a base from which to work to revisit the genre later in the school year. A formal work-up of what constitutes a science fiction short story and what distinguishes it from others would be a great tool for students to create for use in the future as a study guide either for the class final exam, or to prepare for the NYS exams.

A worksheet format for a reflective assignment can be found in Appendix E, pg. 31.

7. Lesson of Regents Essay Writing

James Gunn suggests that “science fiction courses may have to be smuggled into the curriculum under the pretense of serving other, more easily sanctioned purposes” (377). Science fiction is definitely a great way in which to prepare students for the Regents Exam that they must pass during their junior year of high school in order to graduate. The shift of the Regents Exam toward a more implied set of questions from which students must derive meaning is exactly the kind of technique students must use in order to understand science fiction.

The task set forth in the Regents Exam is the creation of a controlling idea about an ambiguous concept by synthesizing meaning out of two different but similar short passages. Reading and deriving meaning from short science fiction best practices this. Science fiction presents readers with very different stories in terms of events, characters, and format that can have very similar themes and implications.

Appendix F, pg. 28, outlines a lesson that will help students prepare for the NYS Regents Exam using the study of science fiction. Students will, by the end of the unit, be skilled students of science fiction, and will be able to write critically within the realm of science fiction.

Building Ties to Other Genres

Short Science fiction stories are closely related to their short story cousins: Mainstream, Horror, Suspense, Fantasy, Supernatural, and Detective short stories. Also, short fiction can be applied across the fiction genre to poetry, plays, and fairy tales, as these genres share many of the same characteristics. However, science fiction can also be related to the non-fiction realm, as any work dealing with science and its effects on mankind, even in feature articles, where one must draw on one's own voice to give weight to the implications of current scientific discoveries. Thus, the science fiction short story is a wise choice for incorporation of the fictional genre study in any high school English classroom.

Works Cited

Atwell, Nancy. In The Middle: New Understandings About Writing, Reading, and

Learning . Portsmouth , NH : Boynton/Cook Publishers, 1998.

Barnouw, Dagmar. “Linguistics and Science Fiction.” Science Fiction Studies . 8 (November 1981): 331-333.

Bengels, Barbara. “The Pleasures and Perils of Teaching Science Fiction on the College

Level.” Science Fiction Studies . 23 (November 1996): 428 – 431.

Bomer, Randy. Time For Meaning: Crafting Literate Lives in Middle and High School .

Portsmouth , NH : Heinemann, 1995.

Burmester, David. “Science Fiction on Film.” English Journal . 74 (April 1985): 90-93.

Calkins, Lucy McCormick. The Art of Teaching Writing . Portsmouth , NH : Irwin

Publishing, 1994.

Cooper, Charles R. Evaluating Writing: The Role of Teachers' Knowledge about Text,

Learning, and Culture . Urbania , IL : NCTE, 1999.

Donawerth, Jane. “Teaching Science Fiction By Women.” English Journal . 79 (March

1990): 39-46.

Elkins, Charles and Suvin Darko. “Preliminary Reflections on Teaching Science Fiction

Critically.” Science Fiction Studies{ Montreal , Quebec , Canada } . 6 (1979): 263-

270.

Finch, Sheila. “Dispatches From the Trenches: Science Fiction in the Classroom.”

Extrapolation: A Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy . 41 (Spring 2000): 28-35.

Greenburg, Martin H., Charles G. Waugh & Jenny-Lynn Waugh (eds). 101 Science

Fiction Stories . New York : Avenel Books, 1986.

Gunn, James. “Teaching Science Fiction.” Science Fiction Studies . 23 (November 1996):

377-385.

Horvath, Brooke K. “The Components of Written Response: A Practical Synthesis of

Current Views.” The Writing Teacher's Sourcebook . New York : Oxford UP,

2000.

Joliffe, David A. “Genre.” Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition . Theresa Enos ed.

New York : Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996.

Kennedy, Mary Lynch. Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and

Scholarship in Contemporary Composition Studies . Westport : Greenwood P,

1998.

Kincaid, Paul. “On the Origins of Genre (science fiction).” Extrapolation . 44 (Winter

2003): 409-420.

Mitchell, Diana. “Connecting Short Stories (teaching ideas).” English Journal . 83

(November 1994): 87-93.

Nunan, E.E. and David Homer. “Science Fiction and Teaching: Science, Science Fiction, and a Radical Science Education.” Science Fiction Studies . 8 (November 1981): 311-330.

Nwazota, Kristina. “Black Writers Bring a Different Perspective to Science Fiction.”

Black Issues Book Review . 4 (Jan-Feb 2002): 28-32.

Pastourmatzi, Domna. “Researching and Teaching Science Fiction in Greece .” PMLA:

Publications of Modern Language Association of America . 119 (May 2004):

530-534.

Silverberg, Robert ed. Beyond Control: Seven Stories of Science Fiction . Nashville :

Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1972.

Silverberg, Robert ed. Science Fiction Hall of Fame: The Greatest Science Fiction

Stories of All Times. New York : Doubleday & Co. Inc., 1970.

Soven, Margot Iris. Teaching Writing in Middle and Secondary Schools: Theory,

Research, and Practice . Boston : Viacom, 1999.

Slusser, George and Daniele Chatelain. “Conveying Unknown Worlds: Patterns of

Communication in Science Fiction.” Science Fiction Studies . 29 (July 2002): 161

186.

Williamson, Jack. “On Science Fiction in College.” Science Fiction Studies . 23

(November1996): 375.

Other Books For Interested Teachers' Research:

Extrapolation , a jounral of science fiction literary criticism

McCaffery, Larry ed. Storming the Reality Studio: A Casebook of Cyberpunk and

Postmodern Fiction . Durham : Duke UP, 1991.

Pournelle, Jerry. The Science Fiction Yearbook . New York : Simon & Schuster, 1985.

Science Fiction Studies , a journal of science fiction literary criticism

Appendices

Appendix A

An Introduction to the Science Fiction Short Story

Class Task:

Step 1: I will read aloud Robert Silverberg's “The Assassin.” You will then record your personal reactions to the story, its specific features, and any questions you might have. I will then read aloud George H. Smith's “The Great Secret” and A. Hyatt Verrill's “The Exterminator,” and ask you to do the same.

Now, you are ready to do some group work, read another story, and determine the additional features of science fiction short stories.

Literature Circle Task:

Step 1: In groups of three or four, read aloud the example of a science fiction short story.

Science Fiction Short Story examples include:

“That Only a Mother” by Judith Merrill

“Flowers for Algernon” by Daniel Keyes

“Dear Pen Pal” by A.E. van Vogt

“The Good Work” by Theodore Thomas

“The Immortal Bard” by Isaac Asimov

“Cinderella, Inc.” by Christopher Anvil

“Child's Play” by William Tenn

“Man of Distinction” by Michael Shaara

“Bounty” by T.L. Sherred

“One Man's Ambition” by Bertrand Chandler

**Please refer to short description and rationale for touchstone texts in Appendix G, pg. 32-36.

Take a few moments and talk to each other about what you thought of the story.

1. Did you like the story? Why? Why not?

2. What is unique about the story? (dialogue, descriptive details, fantastic language, and technological advancement)

Step 2 : Select a note-taker and a presenter and discuss the following:

1. What do you think the story about? What is the story trying to tell us?

Step 3: Develop a list of characteristics of science fiction using the questions from Step 1.

Characteristics

_________________________________ ___________________________________

Step 4: Each group will share and discuss its findings with the whole class. Characteristics common to all the samples of literature will form the basis of our working definition of science fiction short stories.

Common Elements: (be sure to discuss theme, tone, plot, setting, and character)

_________________________________ ___________________________________

_ ___

What is a Science Fiction Short Story?

A science fiction short story is a story dealing with the future; its basic format deals with what our future will be like based on the available science and technology we now possess on Earth. The purpose of the science fiction short story is to get you as a reader thinking about what the world could be like in the future (ten years from now or a thousand).

The serious academic study of science fiction dates from about 1960 – Jack Williamson

Science Fiction makes use of two conventional narrative forms: the travel narrative and the historical narrative – George Slusser and Daniele Chatelain

The kinds of subjects that can be taught through science fiction involve all the social and physical sciences, history, ideas, futurology, religion, morality, ecology, reading skills, and many others - James Gunn

Science Fiction requires us not to accept a particular opinion about the future, but to consider possibilities as a way of making ready – Sheila Finch

Science fiction is an extrapolation of our possible future based on real world facts, and how that future will affect human life.

Science Fiction Short Stories Contain the Following:

• Central to the makeup of a science fiction short story is its concern with the future, based upon extrapolation of current available scientific technology. Science fiction deals most often with post-apocalyptic Earth (whether there is still an Earth or not), and usually incorporates elements of as yet impossible scientific invention: most notably time travel, or hyper-realized gadgets such as holograms, teleportation, and/or extremely advanced robotics. Great examples of such works are Tenn 's “Child's Play,” Dick's “Autofac,” and Thomas' “The Good Work.”

• Science fiction deals with scientific advancement, but also deals with the implications of this advancement in all areas of human life. In other words, science fiction deals both with what will happen to our world in the future because of technology, and with what it will mean for humans as a whole. Good examples of this tenet include: Asimov's “The Immortal Bard,” Keye's “Flowers for Algernon,” and Merrill's “That Only a Mother.”

• Unique to science fiction as well is a subject as yet fantasized about by scientists and popularized by the movie industry: the existence of little green men. A nearly original defining element of science fiction (taking into account that not every SF work has aliens) is human interaction with extra-terrestrial life. Of course, these forms of life can vary from aliens from other planets as in A.E. van Vogt's “Pen Pal,” or they can deal with other forms of aliens as we see in Anvil's “Cinderella, Inc.” For example, re-animated flesh, as we see in dozens of zombie movies, as well as in Shelley's work. They can deal also with long-dead historical figures, as in Silverberg's “The Assassin.”

• Science fiction deals with things that have not happened, and that are not real (like time travel), but can become real. The themes of science fiction stories are usually more important than things like character, plot, setting, and tone.

How do we tell a science fiction short story from another kind of short story?

Step 1: I will read aloud Shirley Jackson's “The Lottery.” You will then record your personal reactions to the story, its specific features, and any questions you might have.

Step 2: In the same groups, read aloud the example of a short story that is not science fiction. Pay attention to the same questions as above.

Other Short Story Examples Include:

“A Rose For Emily” by William Faulkner

“A&P” by John Updike

“The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe

“The Storm” by Kate Chopin

“The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell

“To Build A Fire” by Jack London

“The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane

“Barbie-Q” by Sandra Cisneros

“Cathedral” by Raymond Carver

“An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bride” by Ambrose

Bierce

**Please refer to short description and rationale for comparison texts in Appendix G, pg. 32-36.

Step 2: Discuss some of the differences.

Differences:

Step 3: Share the differences you've found with the rest of the class. I will moderate and add to your suggestions on the board as you write them down below.

What science fiction is not:

_________________________________ ___________________________________

Genre Features

How do science fiction short stories differ from other types of short stories?

3. All science fiction short stories have a very important message to tell us about how we use and abuse the technology we have created.

Common Ground

Now, what do science fiction short stories and other types of short stories have in common? Again, I will moderate and add to your responses on the board as you write them down below.

_________________________________ ___________________________________

So, what is science fiction? I will help you to work out your definition on the board, so that you can write down our finished definition below.

Our Working Definition:

Exploring the Genre

Your task: For homework, find your own example of a science fiction short story and bring it in to share with the class. Refer to the common elements we have discussed in class, and refer to our own working definition of science fiction. You may chose to use an example of a science fiction film, but only one that is either originally a science fiction short story or novel, or one that has a definite thematic message you can discuss with the class. Please gain permission to leave this video in the classroom until our genre study is over, and cue the movie to the most thematically important scene. (Please use caution when choosing a film; watch out for vulgar language or tasteless imagery – or not everyone will be able to view it).

Examples of Acceptable Films:

AI: Artificial Intelligence The Bicentennial Man Gattaca

BladeRunner E.T. Existenz

Star Wars (the old ones) Alien (or a sequel) Terminator

Please also keep in mind that we WILL NOT be watching these movies during class time. They are merely for reference, and for you to use as references, you may view them on your own time.

Here are places to look for examples of short science fiction stories.

1. your textbooks

2. the library

3. on websites dedicated to short science fiction

4. in anthologies of English literature (also found in libraries)

5. scholarly journals or magazines ( Extrapolation , for example)

If you are having a very difficult time, please see me and we will search for something that appeals to you together. Good luck!

Appendix B

Science Fiction Short Story Writing Assignment

Using your knowledge of science fiction short story writing, and incorporating the common elements and working definition we have discussed in class, write a science fiction short story of your choosing. Your topic can be anything you are interested in, but remember that your story must include the common elements and working definition. Research is not required on your topic, but you are encouraged to do preliminary research so that you are not discussing in your story a “new” type of science or invention that does, in fact, already exist (for example: cloning). You will also need to research what types of disasters threaten our way of life (for example: nuclear winter, global warming, and asteroids). Please make sure your story has a central theme, and is not just a cool description of what the world may be like a million years from now. Remember that all science fiction has a very important message to tell us about how we use and abuse the technology we have created.

Your science fiction short story should:

• Be 1-5 pages in length, double spaced

• Inform your readers about the future, due to technological advances, and discuss the effects they've had on humans

• Include some conventions of SF, such as dialogue, first person point of view, or aliens, descriptive details, fantastic language.

• Draw on the common elements we have discussed in class and on our working definition of science fiction

• Reflect an awareness of your audience

Your story may be:

• A personal narrative of a fictional character (like Keyes' “Flowers for Algernon”)

• An adventure into the furthest reaches of space (like Vogt's “Pen Pal”)

• A detailed look at post-apocalyptic life on Earth (like Dick's “Autofac”)

Remember that your story is only limited to your own imagination. If you get stuck, ask for help, and Good Luck!

Due Dates:

Draft 1 is due ______

Peer Review is due _____

Draft 2 is due _______

Final Draft is due _______

Rubric for Evaluating Your Science Fiction Short Story

The following rubric will serve as a guide as you create and develop your science fiction short story. Please refer to it frequently, as it will answer many of the mechanical questions you may have regarding your stories. This same rubric will be used to evaluate and assign a final grade to your completed project. Please remember that your participation in class will also be judged through your effort on the peer review.

6. Exceptional Work (the article meets all of the following 9 criteria)

• The story provides a fully developed examination of a topic within the realm of science fiction, and includes the common elements and working definition included in class discussion.

• The story combines the fully developed theme of the story, as well as the art of storytelling. The story makes skillful use of short story conventions including setting, character, plot, theme, and tone.

• The author makes skillful use of factual information (where appropriate), descriptive details, and dialogue. The author demonstrates a thorough knowledge of his/her audience.

• The lead paragraph and title capture the attention of the reader and captivates the reader throughout the story. All subsequent paragraphs are coherent, insightful, and maintain the focus of the lead.

• The story demonstrates the author's excellent organizational skills, flowing smoothly from start to finish, with interesting logical transitions.

• The writer makes use of vivid, engaging language. The writer has used sentence variation, making the story easy to follow and allows readers opportunity to digest each plot point.

• The writer makes creative use of imagination, incorporating fantastic language and technological possibilities for the setting and development of the story.

• The story is original work, and the writer has incorporated his or her own views about the advancement of technology into the piece.

• Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage are correct.

5. Good Work (the article meets all of the following 9 criteria)

• The story provides a well-developed examination within the realm of science fiction, and includes the common elements and working definition included in class discussion.

• The story combines the well-developed theme of the story, as well as the as the art of storytelling. The story makes good use of short story conventions including setting, character, plot, theme, and tone.

• The author makes good use of factual information (where appropriate), descriptive details, and dialogue. The author demonstrates knowledge about his/her audience.

• The lead paragraph and title of the story are appropriate, and engages the reader throughout most of the story. All subsequent paragraphs are coherent and maintain the focus of the lead.

• The piece demonstrates the author's good organizational skills. The story flows smoothly from start to finish with logical transitions.

• The writer makes use of engaging language. The writer has used sentence variation making the story relatively easy to follow and allows readers opportunity to digest each plot point.

• The writer makes creative uses of imagination, developing fantastic language and technological possibilities for setting and development of the story.

• The story is original work, and the writer has incorporated his or her own views about the advancement of technology into the piece.

• Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage are generally correct.

4. Satisfactory Work (the article meets all of the following 9 criteria)

• The story provides a common examination of a topic within the realm of science fiction, and generally includes the common elements and working definition included in class discussion.

• The story generally combines the common theme of the story, as well as the art of storytelling, though it occasionally lapses into confusing rhetoric. The author makes common use of short story conventions including setting, character, plot, theme, and tone.

• The author makes some use of factual information (where appropriate), descriptive details, and dialogue. The author demonstrates a general awareness of his/her audience.

• The lead paragraph and title draw the readers' interest and encourages them to read further. All subsequent paragraphs are coherent and generally maintain the focus of the lead.

• The piece is organized; the story flows relatively smoothly from start to finish.

• The writer makes some use of sentence variation, although the language is less than engaging.

• The writer uses some creative imagination, incorporating some fantastic language and technological possibilities for the setting and development of the story.

• The story is original, although common work, and the writer incorporates somewhat his or her own views about the advancement of technology into the piece.

• Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage are acceptable.

3. Promising Work in Need of Revision (the article suffers from one or more of the following flaws)

• The story attempts an examination of a topic within the realm of science fiction though it lapses from including common elements and working definition included in class discussion.

• The article attempts to combine the theme of the story, as well as the art of storytelling, though it often lapses into confusing rhetoric. The author attempts to make use of short story conventions such as setting, character, plot, theme, and tone.

• The article makes limited use of factual information (when appropriate), descriptive details, and dialogue. Writer demonstrates some awareness of audience.

• The lead paragraph and/ or title is either too narrow or too vague to captivate the reader's interest, though it shows promise. Subsequent paragraphs are somewhat effective at maintaining focus on the lead.

• The organization of the story is somewhat rough, with some difficult transitions.

• The writer uses bland vocabulary and sentence structures that fail to support the flow of the story.

• The writer attempts creative use of imagination, and shows promise, although its incorporation is somewhat bland and confusing.

• The story is original work, but it is difficult to find the writer's views about the advancement of technology in the piece.

• Spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage are substandard.

2. Work in Need of Major Revision (the article suffers from two or more of the following)

• The article fails to develop an examination of a topic within the realm of science fiction, and does not include the common elements and working definition included in class discussion.

• The story fails to combine the theme of the story, as well as the art of storytelling. The story makes little or no use of the short story conventions including setting, character, plot, theme, and tone.

• The author does not draw on factual information (at all), use descriptive details, or dialogue. The author fails to recognize his/her audience.

• The lead paragraph and/or title are confusing, and do not reflect the focus of the story. Subsequent paragraphs are also confusing.

• The organization of the article is rough and choppy, with poor transitions.

• The writer uses only basic vocabulary and simple sentence structures.

• The writer fails to use imagination creatively, and/or incorporate fantastic elements into the story.

• The story is original work, but fails to incorporate the author's views about the advancement of technology into the piece.

• Spelling, punctuation, paragraphing, grammar, and usage are substandard, with numerous errors.

1. Unsatisfactory Work

• The story is severely deficient in all nine criteria points, the author failed to meet the minimum requirements of the assignment (scope, topic, length, due date, revisions), and/or the work has obviously been plagiarized.

Appendix C

Peer Review Worksheet

Exchange your first draft of your science fiction short story with a fellow student. Read your partner's draft carefully, and respond to the following questions.

1. Describe your reaction to the short story.

2. Do the title and lead paragraphs grab your attention and make you want to continue?

3. Do the following paragraphs include the common elements and working definition of science fiction we studied in class? If not, how may they be improved?

4. Does the author have a basic theme for his/her story? Does he/she use the art of storytelling well?

5. Does the author make good use of factual information (where appropriate), descriptive details, and dialogue? Where else might these things be included?

6. Is the article organized well? Does the story flow from start to finish? Were there any places in the story where you became lost or confused reading it?

7. Does the author incorporate his or her own views regarding the development of technology and what its effects on mankind might be into the story? What do you think his/her opinion seems to be?

8. Does the story incorporate any fantastic language or scientific advancements? Where might the author do so, or use more?

9. Does the story have edge? Where might the edge of the story be improved?

10. Are there any other suggestions you would like to offer the student to improve his/her draft?

Appendix D

Mini-lessons

Mini-lesson #1

What Do Authors Do?

“I write because I don't know what I

think until I read what I say” – Flannery O'Connor

“I see what it is, and ask: why? I dream of what could be, and ask:

why not? That might be called critical daydreaming” – anonymous

science fiction writer, July 1979

These authors provide us with inspiring reasons as to why we should write science fiction, or write in general. But how exactly does one create his/her own short story? Where do you begin? How do you know you're finished? Let us begin by freewriting.

Literature Circle Task:

Step 1: Select a recorder for the group, and a person to present your group's findings to the class. Between the members of your group, discuss with each other what you think an author does. Be aware that this does not have to be a strict process, as writers will often jump around to different steps several different times.

What a writer does:

__________________________________ __________________________________

Step 2: Now, present your findings to the classroom, and let's discuss some common elements. Then, we will collectively agree what exactly it is that a writer does. Write down what things we will do as writers of science fiction:

__________________________________ __________________________________

Mini-lesson #2

The Art of Peer Review

Reviewing What Our Authors Have Created

Because we as a class do not have professional editors at the publishing house, we must all become editors (along with the teacher) of each other's work. It is important that students be aware that peer reviewing is a necessary part of writing a science fiction short story. Therefore, it is important that we discuss the do's and do not's of peer review.

Individual Task:

Step 1: Think for a moment about the piece of literature you have written (fiction or non-fiction) that you are most proud of. Write down a short paragraph in your writer's notebook what the piece was about to refresh your memory. Now, think about how you would like to have a peer review your work. Write down five things you think are inappropriate to say, and five things you think are appropriate to say to a member of this classroom.

“Most inappropriate of all are comments posing veiled attacks

on the student, her opinions and interests, her worth as a writer.

Students have a proprietary interest and emotional involvement in

their writing because it is an intensely personal act in its revelation

of character, intellect, belief, feeling. Therefore, responses manifesting

scorn, hostitility, condescension, flippancy, or boredom are always out of line”

- Brooke Horvath

Step 2: Now, let's share with each other the nice and not-so-nice things we've written down in our notebooks, and create our own list of do's and do not's for peer reviewing.

Do's of Peer Reviewing: Do Not's of Peer Reviewing:

_______________________________ _________________________________

Now that we know what we should and should not say to others about their work, let's get going on peer review!

Mini-lesson #3

Writing Captivating Titles and Engaging Leads

“Don't say the lady screamed.

Bring her on and let her scream.” – Mark Twain

“Leads…are flashlights that shine down into the story.”

- Donald Murray

“I got chills, they're multiplying, and I'm losing

control, for the power you're supplyin'

It's electrifying!” John Travolta, Grease

The speakers above agree the title or lead paragraph of a story is the most important part of your short story. It lets the audience know what your story is going to be about. Done well, the title and lead paragraph grab the attention of the reader so that they have no choice but to continue reading the entire short story. Science fiction short stories make this especially fun because you can have weird, scary, or wicked titles.

Some strategies for creating out-of –this-world titles and leads:

• Concentrate on the most interesting part of your story. Use this to make the title and lead paragraph; the following paragraphs will broaden your focus and give weight to your story.

• Use descriptive and imaginative language to capture a moment, and image, or a feeling that is central to your story.

• Don't be afraid to start with dialogue, or a quote. (Some of Stephen King's best stuff starts with cool quotes!)

Here are some sample approaches to interesting leads for a science fiction short story using several different approaches:

The discovery of alien life could begin with a personal detail:

Chuck stepped off of the star cruiser and engaged his lucite laser gun. He knew something was staring at him, because the hairs on his neck were standing up.

Or, an attention grabbing lead could ask a question:

Why are you here? What are you going to do to me?

Or, dialogue to open a science fiction short story can be interesting:

“Get off of my back! I can't breathe!” Jane jumped and tossed, trying to dislodge the thing that had just jumped on her.

Now, try creating your own creative leads for the following situations.

1. Sadie has just traveled back through time one thousand years.

2. Evel Kineval has been transformed into half man, half robot.

3. Zombies have just arisen from your local cemetary.

4. A nuclear weapon is about to destroy your planet.

5. Reuben and Ras live in a future where they are pets, and their cat Tigger is their master.

How'd you do? If you get hung up on a lead paragraph, it would be okay to go back and either write it, or edit it after your story has begun to take shape. Don't forget, authors go back and forth in the different things they do to create a short story.

Now, let's take the examples given above and try to come up with some captivating titles. For example:

The first lead about Chuck may be called: “A Monster is Watching”

The second questioning lead may be called: “Hostile Takeover”

The third lead may be called: “Attack of the Alien Teacher From Jupiter”

Now, you try and come up with cool titles for the five examples you've created leading paragraphs for.

1. ___________________________

2. ___________________________

3. ___________________________

4. ___________________________

Mini-lesson #4

Editing for Edge and “Punch”

Read the following science fiction short story lead:

James Greene commands the interstellar spaceship “Space Flyer” out of the atmosphere and into space. He is excited about the fact that they are going to Mars. There they will have a meeting with the Martians to discuss creating an alliance.

Now compare it to this version:

“Those Martians have been grating on my nerves ever since we left the atmosphere,” spat James Greene, commander of “Space Flyer” his suped-up space flyer. “This time they're gonna sign the interstellar space contract, or its sayonara for them!”

How is the second version different from the first?

When you edit your short story, look for opportunities to give your work and edge – breath life into your writing by filling it with action and emotion. This may mean changing existing language, adding details, or cutting out things that just are not working. Here are some ways to add and edge to your work:

• Say more, but write less! Often, you can say something better with fewer words.

Good: John landed the space cruiser on the planet. His landing caused a lot of attention from the Martian dignitaries. They were surprised.

Better: Everyone gaped as John's cruiser screamed into the Martian atmosphere at warp five.

• Look for action words, or clever dialogue that can beef up your story.

Good: The Martians refused to sign the most recent peace treaty.

Better: Martian King Blurb spat upon the unfair treaty!

• Use alliteration to make your language edgier.

Good: I hate those lousy Martians!

Better: Those Martians are a bunch of backward, blustering, bozos!

Keeping these tips in mind, revise the following paragraph to give it an edge.

The Martians had weapons prepared for the fight to remain free from Earth rule, which they kept stockpiled in a nearby warehouse. The Martians scrambled to arm themselves against the incoming space cruisers; they came in so fast! Many Martians were in a state of panic over the invasion, but Kang new their weapons were superior to those the Earthlings had.

• Work in pairs to make this paragraph more interesting.

Appendix E

Reflective Assignment

This final assignment is for you to have final closure upon the genre study of short science fiction stories. This worksheet, along with a copy of your final draft of your short story should be kept in your writing folder to help you prepare for the final exam in this class, and for the NYS Regents Exam.

Step 1: Write in your notebooks, or in a letter to the teacher: your general impressions with science fiction short stories. Did you enjoy science fiction? Why? Why not? What were your favorite stories? Least favorite? What would you like to have covered that was not?

Step 2: Answer the following questions in your notebooks:

1. Give a working definition of science fiction.

2. What are the common elements in science fiction?

3. How is science fiction different from other kinds of short stories? Give examples.

4. How are science fiction short stories like other kinds of short stories? Give examples.

Appendix F

Preparing For the NYS Regents Exam

Unified Essay

The NYS Regents Exam includes an essay task that asks students to derive meaning and create a coherent essay from reading two different short passages. The essay includes a topic (usually broad or vague) that you as a student must use as the topic of your essay. You need to use the topic to develop your thesis – called a controlling idea – and to support your claim. You will use textual evidence from both passages to support your controlling idea.

For our practice Regents essay, we will read “The Good Work” by Thedore Thomas and “A&P” by John Updike. You will then be asked to develop a unified (persuasive argument) essay based upon one controlling idea.

Task: Read the two passages. After thinking about them, form a unified essay describing the importance of human dignity. In your essay, use ideas from both passages to establish a controlling idea about human dignity, and show how the author uses specific literary elements and techniques to convey that idea.

Be sure to:

• Use ideas from both passages to establish a controlling idea about the importance of human dignity.

• Use specific and relevant evidence from each passage to develop you controlling idea.

• Show how each author uses specific literary elements (for example: theme, characterization, point of view) or techniques (for example: symbolism, irony, or metaphor) to convey the controlling idea.

• Organize your ideas in a logical and coherent manner.

• Use language that communicates ideas effectively.

• Follow the conventions of standard written English.

The primary challenge here is, after reading the two passages, to establish a controlling idea regarding what the author's seem to argue about human dignity.

What are some possible arguments the authors seem to make? Remember – there is always more than one way to address any given work of fiction, as long as your argument can be supported by the texts.

Avoid plot summary, or simply restating the topic of the passages.

Once you have decided upon your controlling idea, organize your thoughts around your supporting evidence from the text. Remember that this is your opinion based on the text, not just your opinion.

Have a peer review your draft once it has been completed, so that you might revise, and gain insight into which areas of writing a unified essay you need to improve on. Remember that you will not get a chance to peer review during the exam, so practice ahead will make perfect instead. Good Luck!

Appendix G

Science Fiction Short Story

Reading List

“The Immortal Bard” by Isaac Asimov

Description: William Shakespeare is brought into the future through time travel, takes a college course in Shakespeare and flunks the class.

Rationale: Not only will this story give students a good idea of the capabilities time travel may give us in the future, but it also sheds light on literary debate regarding how (correctly) we interpret Shakespearean works today.

“Flowers for Algernon” by Daniel Keyes

Description: A man becomes a genius through a fantastic brain operation, then loses all the intelligence he gained.

Rationale: This story points out the great things science might be able to do for us in the future, but also points out how devastating these improvements can be.

“Child's Play” by William Tenn

Description: A man experiments with cloning, and becomes a victim of a cloning policeman.

Rationale: Cloning is already a science that has been successfully invented. It will drive home to the students the implications of technology on humanity.

“The Good Work” by Theodore Thomas

Description: A picture of the future – dystopia. A man obtains a highly confidential government job tightening screws in a building, while his neighbor obtains a job loosening them.

Rationale: This story gives a distinct picture of the value of human dignity in the future.

“Autofac” by Philip K. Dick

Description: Survivors of post-apocalyptic Earth attempt to gain their freedom from automated factories that determine their existence.

Rationale: This story illustrates the negative consequences of continuing to rely solely on technology for our survival.

“That Only a Mother” by Judith Merrill

Description: A mother is so in love with her child that she cannot acknowledge its hideous physical deformities even to her husband.

Rationale: This story is not only a look at what consequences of nuclear fallout may have (a distinct possibility in our world), but also is an example of SF written by a woman.

“The Assassin” by Robert Silverberg

Description: A man travels back in time to try and save President Lincoln's life, and is jailed as an attempted assassin.

Rationale: Some things in history cannot be changed, no matter how much technology we invent to try.

“Dear Pen Pal” by A.E. van Vogt

Description: A man communicates with a convicted alien felon, and their personalities are interchanged.

Rationale: A unique, epistolary form of science fiction short story, helps inspire the students to write their own stories in a more creative manner.

“The Great Secret” by George H. Smith

Description: A man knows exactly when people will die, and blackmails people.

Rationale: The future does not have to encompass solely technological advances.

“Cinderella, Inc.” by Christopher Anvil

Description: A woman gets plastic surgery, lies to her future husband about it, readers learn he has lied to her too.

Rationale: Technology can get so out of control, that people don't even know who their closest family members are anymore.

“The Exterminator” by A. Hyatt Neville

Description: A story told from the white blood cell's point of view.

Rationale: Point of view in a science fiction short story is relative, the story can be told from anyone's view – even a white blood cell's.

“One Man's Ambition” by Betrand Chandler

Description: A wife chides her husband for reading science fiction. She pays dearly.

Rationale: A defense of science fiction, including common elements and working definition should be included in students' own stories.

“Man of Distinction” by Michael Shaara

Description: A man invents a way to trace genealogy back to the dawn of man.

Rationale: People in the future, like today, are really insignificant, and at the mercy of their technology (life lesson).

“Bounty” by T.L. Sherred

Description: A future without guns.

Rationale: Why our technology is also useful and important, while it is also terrible and destructive.

Short Stories for Comparison

“The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson

Description: A woman is stoned to death when she draws the lucky number.

Rationale: Story is scary and very close to SF, a suspense story.

“A Rose For Emily” by William Faulkner

Description: A woman murders her fiancee who refuses to marry her.

Rationale: The detail in this story is an uncommon feature of SF.

“A&P” by John Updike

Description: A young man quits his job when his boss insults three girls.

Rationale: A internal character story, uncommon in SF. Also a good example with which to discuss human dignity.

“The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe

Description: A man murders another man, and his conscience gives him up.

Rationale: Also a character development/suspense story.

“The Storm” by Kate Chopin

Description: A chance sexual encounter during a storm between strangers.

Rationale: SF stories are sometimes highly erotic.

“The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell

Description: A man is hunted by an insane hunter.

Rationale: Although a suspense story, humans often become the prey of technology.

“To Build A Fire” by Jack London

Description: A man freezes to death in the snow.

Rationale: Similar in the severe isolation humans of the future are destined to feel.

“The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane

Description: Men die trying to swim to land from their boat.

Rationale: Technology, as nature, often triumphs over the most determined humans.

“Barbie-Q” by Sandra Cisneros

Description: A poor family is forced to scavenge a burnt-out warehouse for toys.

Rationale: This is a mainstream story, grounded in reality, totally unlike SF.

“The Cathedral” by Raymond Carver

Description: A man finds new respect for life trying to describe a drawing to a blind man.

Rationale: In SF, humans are often forced to find unique ways to determine their value.

“An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge ” by Ambrose Bierce

Description: An intense psychological voyage by a man who is about to be hanged.

Rationale: There is often very little character development in SF, but it is as fascinating as in this story, when character is considered.

Science Fiction Film Pieces

Blade Runner E.T. The Extra Terrestrial

Terminator 1,2,3 Star Wars Trilogy

Alien (or a sequel) AI: Artificial Intelligence

The Bicentennial Man 2001: A Space Odyssey

Existenz Gattaca

I, Robot Starship Troopers

Science Fiction Novels For Interested Teachers

Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood

Brave New World by Aldous Huxley

Neuromancer (Cyberpunk) by William Gibson

Solaris by Lem Stanislaw

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SUNY Cortland